<p>The Grimes Homestead, also known as Grimes Farm, is a historic home in Mountain Lakes, Morris County, New Jersey, United States. It was constructed in the late 18th Century and served as a way station on the Underground Railroad for runaway slaves.</p><br>
<p>Anti-slavery advocate and Quaker, Dr. John Grimes (1802–1875), was born in this house and lived here until 1828. He moved back to the homestead in 1832, but subsequently moved to the neighboring community of Boonton. He was once arrested for hiding a runaway slave, and was repeatedly harassed by supporters of slavery. The house is now privately owned, and is not open to the public.</p><br>
<p>The Coffin House is a National Historic Landmark located in the present-day town of Fountain City in Wayne County, Indiana. The two-story, eight room, brick home was constructed circa 1838–39 in the Federal style. The Coffin home became known as the "Grand Central Station" of the Underground Railroad because of its location where three of the escape routes to the North converged and the number of fleeing slaves who passed through it.</p><br>
<p>Its original owners, Catharine and Levi Coffin, were Quaker abolitionists who provided fugitive slaves with supplies and a safe place to stay. During the twenty years (1826 to 1847) that The Coffins lived in Indiana it is believed that they helped as many as 2,000 slaves escape to freedom in the Northern United States and in Canada. (The Coffins continued their role as local leaders in the Underground Railroad after their move to Ohio in 1847 and provided aid to approximately 1,300 more slaves to assist in their escape to the North.) In 1966 the Coffins Indiana home became the first property in the state to be added to the National Register of Historic Places. The Levi Coffin House Association operates the property under an agreement with the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, the historic homes present-day owner. The site is open to the public for tours, Tuesday through Saturday, from June through October. Admission is charged for visitors over the age of six. The Coffin House was ranked as “one of the nation’s Top 25 Historical Sites” by the History Channel. In 2016, the Smithsonian named the Levi Coffin House Interpretive Center “one of 12 new museums around the world to visit,” while the Indiana Office of Tourism Development voted it as one of the top museums in the State of Indiana.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Original owners</h3><br>
<p>Catharine and Levi Coffin, the home&#39;s original owners, along with the first of their six children migrated from Guilford County, North Carolina, to Wayne County, Indiana, to join other members of the Coffin family. The Coffins settled at Newport (the present-day town of Fountain City) in Wayne County in 1826 and established a home.</p><br>
<p>Levi Coffin (1798–1877) was a Quaker abolitionist, businessman, and humanitarian who became an active leader in the Underground Railroad in Indiana and Ohio. Known for his leadership in aiding fugitive slaves, Coffin opposed slavery and was given the unofficial title of "President of the Underground Railroad." Catharine (White) Coffin (1803–81) also took an active role in assisting fugitive slaves, which included providing food, clothing, and a safe haven in the Coffin home.</p><br>
<p>The Coffins began sheltering fugitive slaves in Indiana during the winter of 1826–27, not long after their arrival at Newport. Their home became one of several Underground Railroad stops in a larger network of sites that provided aid to runaway slaves as they traveled north to freedom in Canada. Underground Railroad conductors guided escaping slaves through Kentucky, where they typically crossed the Ohio River at one of three points: Madison, Indiana; Jeffersonville, Indiana; or Cincinnati, Ohio. After the crossing many of the escaping slaves were led to the Coffin House. The Coffins and their neighbors provided fugitive slaves with supplies and a place to stay until they could be transported further north. Coffin later estimated that, on average, they helped one hundred slaves escape each year. Although the Coffins did not keep records of their activities because it was illegal to assist runaway slaves, it is believed that they helped as many as 2,000 of them to freedom in the North and in Canada during the twenty years (1826 to 1847) that they lived in Indiana.</p><br>
<p>Harriet Beecher Stowes fictional work, Uncle Toms Cabin, told stories of slaves who escaped on the Underground Railroad. Stowe was living in Cincinnati at the time she wrote the novel and became acquainted with the Coffins, who may have been the inspiration for the fictional Quaker couple named Simeon and Rachael Halliday in her story. Stowe&#39;s book relates the tale of Eliza Harris, a slave girl from the South who escaped by crossing the frozen Ohio River with her baby on a winter night. After receiving food, clothing, new shoes, and shelter from the Hallidays, Harris continued her journey to freedom in Canada.</p><br>
<p>At the urging of friends in the anti-slavery movement, the Coffins left Newport and moved to the Cincinnati, Ohio, area in 1847 to take over management of a store and wholesale warehouse that supplied free-labor goods produced without slave labor. Coffin sold the business in 1857, after determining that it would be impossible to sustain a profit, but the Coffins continued their role as local leaders in the Underground Railroad. It is estimated that they provided 1,300 fugitive slaves with a safe haven in their Ohio home. Coffin later became an agent for the Western Freedmans Aid Society, petitioned the USA government to create the Freedmens Bureau, and in 1867 served as a delegate to the International Anti-Slavery Conference in Paris before retiring from public life.</p><br>
<h3>Residence and Underground Railroad stop</h3><br>
<p>The Coffin family&#39;s residence that later became a state historic site was originally built circa 1838–39. Its location at the point where three of the escape routes to the North converged, along with the number of fugitive slaves who passed through the home, caused it to become known as the "Grand Central Station" of the Underground Railroad. Because Coffin would demand to see a search warrant and slave-ownership papers for suspected runaway slaves before allowing entry, the house was never searched. By the time the slave-catchers returned from the county seat of Centerville (a round trip of 26 mi to acquire the documents), the fugitive slaves would have been transported to other locations.</p><br>
<h3>Hotel and apartment building</h3><br>
<p>In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the home was used as a hotel. After 1911 it was converted to apartments and passed through several owners before it was restored in the 1960s. Fortunately, the property was kept in good condition, including preservation of some of its original windowpanes and woodwork.</p><br>
<h3>Historic site</h3><br>
<p>The Coffin house was named a National Historic Landmark and in 1966 it became the first property in the state to be added to the National Register of Historic Places. Indiana&#39;s state government acquired the house in 1967 and leased it to the Wayne County Historical Society. The home has been restored to appear as it did in the 1840s when the Coffins lived there. The restoration was done by Himelick Construction of Fountain City. After its restoration the home opened to the public as a historic site in 1970.</p><br>
<p>The Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites operates the historic house. The historic site is open to the public for tours from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Wednesday through Sunday.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The home is located at 113 USA Route 27 in the center of present-day Fountain City, Indiana. The two-story, modified Federal-style brick home is painted red and had a two-story rear wing on the northwest corner of the main structure. The home faces east with its main entrance along Main Cross Street (USA Route 27). Another entrance at Mill Street provides access to the rear wing.</p><br>
<p>The eight-room interior includes furnishings in the style of a Quaker family living in Indiana during the 1840s. Its original fireplaces, doors, floors and portions of the homes woodwork have been restored. The main entrance opens into a central hallway that includes a room on each side and a staircase leading to the second floor. The south room on the main floor includes built-in bookcases that are original to the home. The north room on the main floor served as the homes parlor and leads to a dining room in the rear wing. Stairs lead down to a kitchen and spring room in the basement. A spring-fed well in the basement provided the home with access to fresh water. The second floor contains three bedrooms.</p><br>
<p>The Coffin homes interior had several modifications that could have been used as hiding places for runaway slaves in case the house was searched. Most of the rooms have at least two exits. A secret door installed in the maids quarters in the rear addition on the second floor provided access for as many as fourteen fugitive slaves to hide in a narrow crawlspace between the walls. The upstairs rooms could accommodate extra visitors. The home also contains a large attic and storage garrets.</p><br>
<p>The Havens–Page House, also known as the T. C. Havens House, is a historic house built between 1900 and 1924 at 101 North 39th Street in the Gold Coast Historic District of Omaha, Nebraska. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982, this home is remarkable for its classical Georgian Revival architecture.</p><br>
<h2>About</h2><br>
<p>Designed by architects F.A. Henninger and J. Harte, the Havens–Page House was completed between 1900 and 1924 for Thomas Collins Havens. It is built of stone in the Second Renaissance Revival Style. Located just south of the West Central–Cathedral Historic District and the George Joslyn House, it is within a North Omaha neighborhood referred to as the Gold Coast. When it was first built, the house was a trolley car ride away from the bustle of Omaha&#39;s downtown; today, it is located in the middle of the city.</p><br>
<p>The house was rehabilitated in 1983 in conjunction with a City of Omaha program for $50,000. It was designated an Omaha landmark on November 24, 1981, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<p>The Town Clock Church, now the Second Baptist Church of New Albany, Indiana, United States, is a historic church located at 300 East Main Street, within the New Albany Downtown Historic District. It was constructed in 1852 as Second Presbyterian Church, in what was then the largest city in Indiana. It is near the Ohio River, across the border from Louisville, Kentucky.</p><br>
<p>It was a station on the Underground Railroad.</p><br>
<p>The church is brick, and is constructed in the Greek Revival style of architecture. It previously had a 160-foot high clock tower that could be seen by boat crews on the Ohio River. However, the tower has been shortened. The first phase of reconstruction is underway which will include a new steeple and clock faces. When reconstruction is complete, the tower will once again be 160 feet tall.</p><br>
<p>The Lizzie Robinson House, located at 2864 Corby Street in North Omaha, Nebraska, United States, is the location of the first Church of God in Christ congregation in the state. This was a Pentecostal denomination founded in the late 19th century in Lexington, Mississippi, by Charles Price Jones and Charles Harrison Mason; the latter of whom led the church for decades.</p><br>
<p>Initially most of the COGIC members and churches were in the Deep South states. During the Great Migration of the first half of the twentieth century, African-American migrants to northern cities established new COGIC congregations across the country.</p><br>
<p>Built in 1910, the house is listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 25, 1993, and was designated an Omaha landmark on June 9, 1992.</p><br>
<h2>About</h2><br>
<p>Edward and Lizzie Robinson founded the first Church of God in Christ in the state of Nebraska after they moved to Omaha in 1916 from the South. The Robinsons lived here with their daughter, Ida Baker, from 1916 through 1924. According to the City of Omaha, "Mrs. Robinson is significant historically for her role as organizer of the women’s ministry for the Church of God in Christ, the largest African-American Pentecostal denomination in the world."</p><br>
<p>The Borden Institute was located in Borden, Indiana. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 but removed in 1986.</p><br>
<p>It had an impressive library of 1,500 volumes at its opening, gaining an additional 50-100 every year. By 1904 the facility had 3,000 books.</p><br>
<p>The institute closed in 1906. The building would continue to see educational use until the 1950s. Even though preservationists succeeded in protecting it for 12 years, the building was condemned in 1978 and later razed due to fears that nearby elementary school children would be hurt if they played on the property.</p><br>
<p>The Kneip–Bredthauer House, located at the southeast corner of Colorado and Ceder in Burton, Texas, is a building of historical significance. The house is a two-story modified L-plan dwelling with Queen Anne detailing, which is unusual for the Burton area.</p><br>
<p>Dr. A.T. Kneip was responsible for this unusual design. Under Kneips ownership, the house was enlarged around 1910 to its current two-story configuration. Following Kneips death in 1913, the house was purchased by Henry and Minnie Bredthauer, who lived in the house for more than 50 years.</p><br>
<p>Cloverfields Dairy Farm was a model dairy farm located in Olympia, Washington. Built by former Washington state pioneer Hazard Stevens after he returned to Olympia in 1914, today the farmhouse is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>About</h2><br>
<p>After long careers in politics and the military, Hazard Stevens returned to Olympia from Boston, Massachusetts in 1914, determined to develop a large tract of land his father purchased in the 1850s.</p><br>
<p>The first commission in Olympia for architect Joseph Wohleb, the Cloverfields farmhouse still stands today at 1100 Carlyon Avenue SE. It was built in the Dutch Colonial Revival Style and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the house, Cloverfields originally included a large barn and two silos. As the president of the Olympia Light and Power Company, Stevens utilized electricity extensively throughout Cloverfields, particularly in the electrified barn and milking machines. The Holstein cows he used were anomaly in the area, and were complemented by Stevens&#39; extensive orchard and angora goats.</p><br>
<p>In 1949, 40 acre of the Cloverfields Dairy Farm in Southeast Olympia was purchased by the Olympia School District. Today it is the location of the current Olympia High School.</p><br>
<p>The Oregon Caves Chateau is a historic American hotel that opened in 1934. It is located in Oregon Caves National Monument in southern Oregon, near Cave Junction. The Chateau was designed and built by Gust Lium, a local contractor. Declared a National Historic Landmark in 1987, the Chateau building is architecturally significant because of its construction and design. The Chateau is closed for repairs until further notice.</p><br>
<p>The Chateau is six stories high and is built across a steep ravine. All floor levels except the top two have ground level entrances because of the steep slope. From the main front entrance the building appears to be only three stories high, but from the creek bed below the hotel, all six floors can be seen. The lowest two floors house storage and building systems. The third floor contains the dining room, coffee shop and kitchen. The fourth floor, at the level of the driveway, houses the lobby and some guest rooms, while the fifth and sixth floors have guest rooms and the manager&#39;s quarters.</p><br>
<h2>Exterior architecture</h2><br>
<p>The architecture of the Chateau building, as well as several other buildings nearby of the same age, is rustic. The building exterior is sheathed with cedar bark, giving it a shaggy appearance. Both shed and dormer style roofs mimic the surrounding mountains. Extensive rock work was constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps under the direction of the Plans and Design branch of the Park Service, headed by Thomas Chalmers Vint, creating a bond between the building and the landscape. A small pond with a waterfall is in the courtyard.</p><br>
<h2>Interior architecture</h2><br>
<p>Inside the Chateau the rustic architecture continues. Thirty-inch-diameter (30 in) log posts support the open beam ceilings. A large, rustic-marble double-sided fireplace dominates the lobby. Dark paneled walls create a cavelike feel and allow one&#39;s attention to be drawn to the view outside the large picture windows. Since the lobby is four floors above the creek bed, the lobby windows look out into the trees of the surrounding forest. A grand staircase made of pine log stringers, maple steps, and balustrades of madrone, continue the rustic style. The gray wood in the lobby is tinted by cement, which came from the cement bags that the workers beat against the wood to loosen the contents.</p><br>
<p>The Chateau is in almost original condition. The rooms remain almost exactly as they were in 1934. There are no phones or televisions, and steam radiator heating remains. While formerly open spring to fall, the Chateau is closed until further notice, as it is undergoing a multi-year rehabilitation project that will "address a number of life, health, safety, and accessibility concerns while retaining the historic integrity of the building."</p><br>
<p>A 1930s-style coffee shop on the courtyard level of the Chateau is still in original condition, with original maple counters and chrome and vinyl swivel stools. Part of the flow from nearby Cave Creek is diverted into an artificial stream bed inside the building; the stream flows through the dining room.</p><br>
<h2>Monterey furniture</h2><br>
<p>The Chateau contains a large collection of the original polychrome Mason Monterey furniture, made by the Mason Manufacturing Company in Los Angeles, California. The Mason Monterey line is important in that Frank and George Mason, its founders, were credited being originators of the Monterey trend. The Chateau has the largest public collection of Mason Monterey furniture in the world. In 2010, the first two dozen pieces were conserved and restored. Ten A-frame Dining chairs that went through the flood of 1964, having been stripped of most of their finish, were repaired and restored to their original appearance, while several upholstered pieces were conserved.</p><br>
<p>The Ames Gate Lodge is a celebrated work by American architect Henry Hobson Richardson. It is privately owned on an estate landscaped by Frederick Law Olmsted, but its north facade can be seen from the road at 135 Elm Street, North Easton, Massachusetts. In 2013, the Ames Gate Lodge was protected by a preservation easement held by Historic New England.</p><br>
<p>The lodge was designed and constructed in 1880-1881 for Frederick Lothrop Ames, son of railway magnate Oliver Ames Jr., as the northern entrance to his Langwater estate. Although Langwater dated from 1859 with 1876 additions, its northern regions had until then remained unfinished. Ames thus engaged Richardson and Olmsted in collaboration on its creation. Olmsted&#39;s landscape designs were implemented in 1886–1887.</p><br>
<p>The Gate Lodge is a remarkable synthesis of oversize stone wall, arched gate, and gatehouse building, perhaps based in part on Richardsons appreciation of the Central Park bridges designed by Calvert Vaux. It forms a long, low mass lying directly athwart the estates entry road, which runs southward within its dominating, semicircular arch. The massive walls appear to be crude heaps of rounded boulders from the estate soil -- "cyclopean rubble" in Vincent Scully&#39;s memorable phrase—trimmed in Longmeadow brownstone. The blocky, two-story lodge proper stands west of the arch, and originally housed the estate gardener on the lower floor with rooms for bachelor guests above. Across the arch is a long, low wing ending in a circular bay, once used for storing plants through the winter.</p><br>
<p>The lodges public (northern) facade is relatively flat and austere; its southern facade, by contrast, is highly shaped with protrusions and a large porch featuring carvings by Augustus Saint-Gaudens. Capping all is the lodges prominent, hipped, reddish-tiled roof with its eyelid dormers. As Frank Lloyd Wright once wrote, "The presence of a building is in its roof, and what a roof the Ames Gate Lodge has!"</p><br>
<p>The nearby F. L. Ames Gardeners Cottage (1884–85) was also designed by Richardson, and built some 400 ft east of the Gate Lodge when the gardeners family outgrew the lodge. It was later enlarged by Richardson&#39;s successors, Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, and has subsequently been shingled and otherwise modified.</p><br>
<p>The Confederate Martyrs Monument at the Jeffersontown City Cemetery in Jeffersontown, Kentucky, marks where four Confederate soldiers were executed "without cause or trial". Their execution was under Order 59, created by Union General Stephen G. Burbridge, known as "Butcher Burbridge" in Kentucky, which called for the execution of four Confederate prisoners for every unarmed Union citizen killed. The total number of executions performed as a result of this order was fifty. The four soldiers commemorated on the stone were Wilson P. Lilly, Rev. Sherwood Hatley, Lindsay Duke Buckner and M. Blincoe.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The execution of the four Confederate soldiers was the only significant event of the American Civil War in Jeffersontown. It was done in retaliation for the extrajudicial murder of a Union soldier on Bardstown Pike, as was common during the Civil War. The soldiers were shot while confined, and their bodies were dumped in a ditch until their interment here.</p><br>
<p>The monument was placed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 17, 1997, the same day as the Louisville Confederate Monument and the Union Monument in Louisville. The Confederate Soldiers Martyrs Monument in Eminence, Kentucky, that was also established to honor victims of Order 59, was also established on the same day.</p><br>
<h2>Inscriptions</h2><br>
<p>The monument was erected by the Albert Sidney Johnston chapter of the Daughters of the Confederacy (D.O.C).</p><br>
<p>The inscription on the front reads:</p><br>
<p>Wilson P. Lilly</p><br>
<p>Rev. Sherwood Hatley</p><br>
<p>Confederate soldiers</p><br>
<p>October 25, 1864</p><br>
<p>Robbed of the glory of death on the field</p><br>
<p>of battle by Stephen G. Burbridge who</p><br>
<p>ordered them shot without cause or trial</p><br>
<p>Erected to the memory of the four martyrs by the</p><br>
<p>Albert Sidney Johnston chapter</p><br>
<p>D.O.C. of Louisville, Ky. June 11, 1904</p><br>
<p>Martyrs</p><br>
<p>On the back it reads:</p><br>
<p>Wilson P. Lilly.</p><br>
<p>Sherwood Hatley.</p><br>
<p>Lindsay Duke Buckner.</p><br>
<p>M. Blincoe.</p><br>
<p>Being dead yet speaketh.</p><br>
<p>File:Confederate Martyrs JTown 2.jpgFront view of monument</p><br>
<p>File:Confederate Martyrs JTown 3.jpgBack view of the monument</p><br>
<p>File:Confederate Martyrs JTown 4.jpgView of monument and the closest street</p><br>
<p>File:Confederate Martyrs JTown 5.jpgView of the monument and the farther street</p><br>
<p>The Grace Episcopal Church is an Episcopal church designed by noted American architect H. H. Richardson, with a major stained glass window by John LaFarge. It is located at 160 High Street, Medford, Massachusetts and now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The church was constructed 1867-1869. It is one of Richardson&#39;s earliest works and the second of his churches (now the earliest remaining since his Unity Church, Springfield, has been demolished). Its cornerstone was laid in 1867 but by August 1868 it was evident that construction costs would exceed the budget. After the Brooks family covered the remaining construction costs, it became a private chapel under Episcopal law. In 1873 the family delivered the church to the parish, and it then was consecrated by the Bishop of Maine.</p><br>
<p>The church is designed in a picturesque Gothic style with 90 ft high steeple (square base, octagonal spire), asymmetrical massing, and rough-cut walls of glacial boulder with granite trim. A massive slate roof, in gray with bands of red slate, dominates the nave&#39;s low walls and the five-sided apse attached to its east wall.</p><br>
<p>The church has undergone extensive modifications from its original design. In 1882 a Sunday school annex was appended, in 1883 the nave interior was redecorated, and in 1957 further additions were made. In 1962 the chancel was reworked and Richardsons original altar given to the Brooklyn Museum. In the early 1970s Richardsons dark-stained interior was replaced by a brighter woodwork. As of 2007 only the pulpit remains of his original interior. LaFarges window, "Rebecca at the Well", forms the center of the naves south wall, and was probably installed in 1884 or 1885.</p><br>
<p>The William Watts Sherman House is a notable house designed by American architect H. H. Richardson, with later interiors by Stanford White. It is a National Historic Landmark, generally acknowledged as one of Richardson&#39;s masterpieces and the prototype for what became known as the Shingle Style in American architecture. It is located at 2 Shepard Avenue, Newport, Rhode Island and is now owned by Salve Regina University. It is a contributing property to the Bellevue Avenue Historic District.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house was built in 1875–1876 by William Watts Sherman, of the banking firm Duncan Sherman & Co. of New York, and his first wife Annie Derby Rodgers Wetmore (daughter of William Shepard Wetmore of the nearby Chateau-sur-Mer). It was designed by the architectural firm of Gambrill and Richardson, though there is no evidence of Gambrill&#39;s involvement in the design, and built by the Norcross Brothers. According to an article in the Newport Mercury (January 9, 1875), its frame was constructed in New Jersey and shipped to Newport for assembly.</p><br>
<p>The original house was stories in height and basically rectangular, about 53 by in dimensions, with porte-cochere on the east facade, and two principal entrances on the west. Its first story was faced in pink granite ashlar, with higher stories of brick, shingle, and half-timbered stucco, diamond-panel windows grouped in long, horizontal bands, and five massive red brick chimneys. Trim materials included reddish sandstone and brownstone. The roof was steeply gabled, with a broad single gable in front and multiple sharp gables to the rear, all originally shingled in wood. Its interior organizes clusters of rooms about a spacious central stair hall. Circa 1877 unusual stained-glass windows by Daniel Cottier (but often credited to John LaFarge) were added; these have subsequently been sold.</p><br>
<h2>Alterations</h2><br>
<p>This original design was extended and altered, 1879–1881, by McKim, Mead and White in a style consonant with earlier work; the parlor and library were designed by Stanford White. A second addition by Newport architect Dudley Newton (1845–1907), circa 1890, added a ballroom and service wing. The house remained in private hands until 1951 when it was willed to the Baptist Home of Rhode Island as a home for the aged. In 1963 a hospital wing was added, and in 1982 it was acquired by Salve Regina.</p><br>
<p>The house combines elements from medieval European, Renaissance English and Colonial American styles, and appears to have been inspired by British architect Norman Shaws houses in Surrey (published in 1874). According to the Newport Mercury, its builders had been "unable to find a name" for the houses architectural style, although the family termed it Queen Anne style.</p><br>
<p>On December 30, 1970, the house was designated a National Historic Landmark by the Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<p>The Rice, formerly the Rice Hotel, is an historic building at 909 Texas Avenue in Downtown Houston, Texas, United States. The current building is the third to occupy the site. It was completed in 1913 on the site of the former Capitol building of the Republic of Texas, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The old Capitol building was operated as a hotel until it was torn down and replaced by a new hotel around 1881. Jesse H. Jones built a new seventeen-story, double-winged hotel in 1913, also called "The Rice Hotel." This building underwent major expansions: adding a third wing in 1925, adding an eighteenth floor in 1951, and adding a five-story "motor lobby" in 1958. In addition, there were several renovations during its life as a hotel. It continued to operate as a hotel before finally shutting down in 1977. After standing vacant for twenty-one years, The Rice was renovated as apartments and reopened in 1998 as the Post Rice Lofts. It was sold in 2014 and renamed simply The Rice.</p><br>
<h2>Capitol building</h2><br>
<p>When Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen commissioned the first survey of Houston in the fall of 1836, they made plans to set aside property for use by the Republic of Texas. Eventually they chose property on the north side of Texas Avenue between Travis and Main streets. They also agreed to construct a capitol building for the Texas government, and leased the building on easy terms.</p><br>
<p>The Republic of Texas used this as its capitol building from 1837 to 1839, and again from 1842 to 1845. In 1841, Mr. M. Norwood leased the building from Augustus Allen, and ran it as the Capitol Hotel. After the Texas government left Houston again, Augustus Allen resumed leasing the building to various hotel operators. Charlotte Allen sold the property to R.S. Blount in 1857. There were various hotel operators between 1857 and 1881 with a few name changes (Houston House and Barnes House). The Capital building was also a home to Holland Lodge #36 F.& A.M (later Holland Lodge #1 A.F.&A.M.) and the founding location for the Grand Lodge of the Republic of Texas A.F& A.M. (later Grand Lodge of Texas A.F. & A.M.). The lodge met in the Senate Chamber. Sam Houston, Anson Jones, and William Marsh Rice were all members of Holland Lodge.</p><br>
<p>Anson Jones, the last president of the Republic of Texas and first Grand master of Texas Masons committed suicide at the hotel in 1858.</p><br>
<h2>First Rice Hotel building</h2><br>
<p>Abraham Groesbeck razed the original building and constructed a five-story Victorian hotel in 1881. The building, then known as the Capitol Hotel, was designed by George E. Dickey, and represented his first major commission since relocating to Houston in 1878.</p><br>
<p>William Marsh Rice bought the hotel after Groesbeck died in 1886. He added a three-story annex. Rice was murdered in 1900, and the hotel property was transferred to the Rice Institute, which he had established in 1891. The Rice Institute trustees renamed it the Rice Hotel.</p><br>
<p>Jessie H. Jones, who would later redevelop the site, resided at the original Rice Hotel when he first arrived in Houston around 1898. Texas Governor James Hogg maintained a Houston residence there in 1904.</p><br>
<h2>Second Rice Hotel building</h2><br>
<p>The hotel had been losing money and its taxes unpaid. Jesse H. Jones offered to lease the land from the Rice Institute and replace the existing hotel through his company, the Houston Hotel Association. Jones obtained a ninety-nine year lease with an option for a ninety-nine year extension. The Rice Institute also invested funds from its endowment to assist Jones in building a new hotel. After demolishing the original Rice Hotel in 1912, Jones hired Mauran, Russell & Crowell to design the new hotel. The new seventeen-story, C-shaped (or U-shaped) hotel opened in May 1913. The hotel featured four restaurants, a banquet room, a small concert hall, and a rooftop deck. The construction cost was about $3.5 million.</p><br>
<p>In the first five years, the new Rice Hotel was losing money, but the Houston Hotel Association was able to repay its loans. Jesse Jones continued improving the building. In 1922, he installed air-conditioning in the Rice Hotel Cafeteria, the first for a public room in Houston. In 1924, he expanded the capacity of the cafeteria, but built over a basement pool (it would be discovered and re-opened in the 1998 renovation). In 1925, Jones hired Alfred C. Finn to design a new wing for the hotel, increasing the number of rooms to over 1,000 and creating the building&#39;s current E-shaped configuration. The Crystal Ballroom was air-conditioned in 1928, the same year that Houston hosted the National Democratic Convention. More than preparing the Rice Hotel for convention delegates, Jones lured the Democratic Convention to Houston in the first place, donating $200,000 to the cause. A famous guest was during the convention was Franklin D. Roosevelt, the not yet Governor of New York. Jones placed a large shed on the hotel roof before the Democratic Convention to serve as temporary accommodations. This hotel deck was a popular dance venue during the 1930s.</p><br>
<p>Jones continued investing in the Rice Hotel through the 1930s. The Rice Barber Shop was remodeled in 1930, and a major remodeling of the bottom floors in 1938 coincided with a new, art-deco dining area, the Empire Room.</p><br>
<p>After Jones died in 1956, the estate conveyed the Rice Hotel building to the Jones family non-profit, the Houston Endowment. The Rice continued to operate as a hotel under the management of the Houston Endowment until 1971. In 1957, Houston Endowment remodeled the Old Capital Club and the Flag Room from the previously existing Empire Room. They commissioned a five-story annex for a motor lobby and a second grand ballroom in 1958. The hotel featured fine dining in the Flag Room, a casual first-floor coffee shop, and the underground Rice Hotel Cafeteria, known for its signature dish, rice pudding. It had a variety of retail shops, including a lobby news stand, a hat store, and Bilton&#39;s Fine Jewelry.</p><br>
<p>In 1962 the Rice Hotel was used for a meeting of NASA Astronaut Group 2 - The New Nine - all of whom booked in with the code name "Max Peck" as portrayed on the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon. At the time, the hotel&#39;s general manager was named Max Peck.</p><br>
<p>United States President John F. Kennedy visited the Rice Hotel on September 12, 1962, following his "We choose to go to the Moon" speech, and on November 21, 1963, before traveling to Fort Worth, and then Dallas, where he was assassinated. Kennedy used a suite at the Rice Hotel to hold meetings, which was supplied with caviar, champagne, and his favorite beer. After a brief visit at a LULAC event and his speech at the Albert Thomas Convention Center, he returned to his suite for a change of clothes. After less than six hours in Houston, he headed to the airport for his flight to Fort Worth. He also delivered his famous speech on religion in politics there to the Greater Houston Ministerial Conference on September 12, 1960. Other notable people who have orated at the Rice are Texas Governor William P. Hobby and Captain James A. Baker of Baker and Botts.</p><br>
<p>Other notable guests of the Rice Hotel include Groucho Marx and Liberace. Notable musicians who have performed at the Rice include Tommy Dorsey, Perry Como,</p><br>
<p>Rice University assumed ownership of the Rice Hotel through a donation from the Houston Endowment. The university had already owned the land since 1900, and the hotel had been operating under a ninety-nine year lease. The hotel ran profitably for a couple of years. However, Rice University estimated compliance to a new 1974 Houston fire code would cost as much as $1.2 million. In December 1974, the university warned that they might demolish the hotel if they could not sell it. Rittenhouse Capital Corporation purchased the property in 1975, and briefly operated as the Rice Rittenhouse Hotel, opening in April 1976 after being closed for remodeling. The hotel closed again in August 1977.</p><br>
<p>Several entities assumed financial interests in the Rice Hotel after the August 1977 closure. The Rice Preservation Corporation purchased the Rice Hotel property at auction in September 1977. Portfolio Management of Texas bought the property early in 1978 for $3 million, much more than the $542,962 paid at the 1977 foreclosure auction. The new owners secured a listing on the National Register of Historic Places and federal funding to convert the building into apartments. Portfolio Management of Texas did not raise enough capital and did not execute the federal grant. In 1981, Rovi Texas Corporation purchased the property for $7.75 million and announced they would operate it as a luxury hotel. The business plan was based on federal aid of $9.7 million, which was not forthcoming. Rovi Texas allowed its bank, Frankfurt BFG-Bank AG, to assume ownership of the property. The German Bank was asking $15 million to $17 million to sell until they discovered structural problems with the building, leading them to cut their asking price in half.</p><br>
<h2>Restoration</h2><br>
<p>Randall Davis inquired about redeveloping the Rice Hotel property in 1995. He had already rehabilitated old buildings and repurposed them as loft apartments. Three examples are the Dakota Lofts, the Hogg Palace, and the Tribeca Lofts.</p><br>
<p>Michael Stevens, head of the Houston Housing Finance Corporation (HHFC), proposed a public-private partnership, which included $5 million in capital from the Randall Davis investment group with a $5 million matching funds from the City of Houston. However, as cost estimates for the renovation increased, private investors backed out. Stevens developed a tax increment financing (TIF) scheme in which the Rice project would borrow against future tax revenue increases. The City of Houston planned a Tax Increment Reinvestment Zone (TIRZ), placing the Rice within its boundaries. Based on projected tax revenue of $700,000, he coaxed a $6 million loan from Wells Fargo Bank, replacing the $5 million from the Davis group under the original plan. As head of HHFC, Stevens committed another $8 million to the project, $3 million of which would go toward buying the Rice outright. HHFC would recover its investment through selling federal tax credits for restoring historic buildings.</p><br>
<p>Stevens sold most of the municipal interest in the hotel to Columbus Properties for $4.5 million in cash. Columbus (later renamed Post Properties) also assumed all the municipal debt related to the project, but also gained the tax credits and the ground lease. The city retained ownership of the property, while Davis obtained a forty-year lease.</p><br>
<p>Davis hired the architectural firm of Page Southerland Page to plan the renovation of the abandoned Rice Hotel. The firm presented Davis with a plan to limit public rooms to the ground floor. Alternatively, the Texas State Historical Association proposed restoring the Crystal Ballroom. Davis decided to model the public area after the 1913 Rice Hotel. This included restoration of the former two-story lobby, the Crystal Ballroom, and the Empire Room. The ground floor reserved 25,000-square feet of retail space, with a wide cast iron awning covering the sidewalks on the Texas Avenue side and part of the Main Street side.</p><br>
<h2>Rice Lofts</h2><br>
<p>Post Properties (renamed from Columbus Properties) opened the Post Rice Lofts for tenants in April 1998. After renovation from 1000 hotel rooms into lofts, the building housed 312 apartments, including some 500-square foot efficiencies, many 1500-square foot apartments, and a few three-story penthouses. Efficiency apartments rented as low as $750 per month.</p><br>
<p>Sambuca, a jazz club, opened in ground floor space at the Post Rice Lofts on October 28, 1998. Sambuca, which was still operating at the same location as of November 19, 2014, announced plans to open a new bar "Lawless" on the second floor.</p><br>
<p>In early 2014, Post Properties listed the Post Rice Lofts for sale, while claiming an apartment occupancy rate of ninety-five percent and an average rental price of $1,700 per month. Later that year, CH Realty/MF Houston Rice VI (Crow Holding Capital Partners) acquired the building from Post Properties and renamed it The Rice.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, Crow Holding Capital Partners announced plans for renovations. The owners hired architectural firm Page to design the renovations. The plan includes installing appliances and remodeling each apartment, and moving a swimming pool and fitness center from the basement to the second floor. Along with new appliances for the apartments, there were plans for remodeling of each kitchen and bathroom. The management company also announced valet service would be offered to tenants. Early in 2014 Post Properties claimed that average rent was almost $1,700 per month and the building had a vacancy rate of about five percent. One person interviewed late in 2014 said his one-bedroom apartment rented for $1,550.</p><br>
<h2>Tenants</h2><br>
<p>The Petroleum Club of Houston, founded in 1946, was originally located in the top area of the Rice Hotel. It moved to the ExxonMobil Building in 1963.</p><br>
<p>Previously Amy&#39;s Ice Creams had its Houston location at the Rice Hotel.</p><br>
<h2>Zoned schools</h2><br>
<p>The Rice Lofts is zoned to the Houston Independent School District.</p><br>
<p>Residents are zoned to Crockett Elementary School, Gregory Lincoln Education Center (for middle school), and Northside High School (formerly Davis High).</p><br>
<p>By Spring 2011 Atherton Elementary School and E.O. Smith Education Center were consolidated with a new K-5 campus in the Atherton site. As a result, the building was rezoned from Smith to Gregory Lincoln."."</p><br>
<p>Houston Independent School District. Retrieved on April 7, 2009.</p><br>
<p>The Carnegie Center for Art & History, within the Downtown Historic District of New Albany, Indiana, is a contemporary art gallery and local history museum. The Carnegie Center offers a variety of exhibitions, events, and learning opportunities for the public. The Carnegie Center is a branch of the New Albany-Floyd County Public Library.</p><br>
<p>The building was initially built as a Carnegie library, first opened on March 2, 1904, with 11,125 total books. It is of Beaux-Arts architecture style. It was used as a library until 1969, when the new New Albany-Floyd County Public Library was built. After a $1.2 million renovation in 1998, the name was changed to the Carnegie Center for Art & History to better reflect its mission and library heritage. In 2015, total attendance was 26,690 and Carnegie Center staff presented 107 programs to participants of all ages. All exhibits and programs are offered free of charge to the public.</p><br>
<h2>Exhibitions</h2><br>
<p>The Carnegie Center has two permanent exhibitions.</p><br>
<p>The first is entitled Ordinary People, Extraordinary Courage: Men and Women of the Underground Railroad, which opened in March 2006. The exhibit explores the lives of real people both free and enslaved, whose selfless acts of courage helped fugitive slaves find hope and freedom. The Exhibit is based on the book, The Underground Railroad in Floyd County, Indiana by Pamela Peters. Information for the project was gathered from court records, newspaper stories, oral history accounts, and other artifacts. At the heart of the exhibit are the residents of New Albany who were able to accomplish so much in light of the risk of being involved with the Underground Railroad.</p><br>
<p>The second permanent exhibit is entitled Remembered: The Life of Lucy Higgs Nichols. The exhibit guides visitors through Lucys life from 1838 to 1915. Period documents and letters detail her life as an enslaved person in Tennessee, a nurse during the Civil War, and her post-war life in freedom. It highlights her six-year battle for a nurses pension, ultimately awarded through a Special Act of Congress. Visitors can explore maps that pinpoint the paths she took and examine actual artifacts from the Civil War, including an Enfield rifle and an amputation saw of the same type used by the surgeons Lucy served with in the 23rd Indiana Volunteers.</p><br>
<p>Wade Memorial Chapel is a Neoclassical chapel and receiving vault located at Lake View Cemetery in Cleveland, Ohio, in the United States. It was donated to the cemetery by Jeptha Wade II in memory of his grandfather, cemetery and Western Union co-founder Jeptha Wade. The overall design was by the newly-founded Cleveland area architectural firm of Hubbell & Benes, and was their first commission. The interior&#39;s overall design is by Louis Comfort Tiffany based on a preexisting 1893 design. The interior features two mosaics on the right and left hand walls, and a large stained glass window.</p><br>
<p>Wade Memorial Chapel was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 18, 1973.</p><br>
<h2>Conception and siting of the chapel</h2><br>
<p>In 1896, Wade asked the newly-founded Cleveland architectural firm of Hubbell & Benes to create a preliminary design. He was so happy with their work that he did not ask any other firm for a design. He chose their concept as the final design for the chapel and told Hubbell & Benes to finalize it and create blueprints.</p><br>
<p>The Lake View Cemetery Association, which owned the cemetery, did not formally accept the new chapel until these plans were done.</p><br>
<p>The site selected for the chapel was between two existing lakes, diagonally across a road from the existing public receiving vault. There was a slight hill here, and the structure was designed so that the crypt level could not be seen from the driveway that led to the front of the chapel.</p><br>
<h2>Construction and cost</h2><br>
<p>Ground for the new chapel was broken on February 19, 1898. The hillside was excavated 25 ft down to bedrock, and the foundations and crypt level finished in late December 1898. Completing the interior took much longer then expected, and the chapel was not finished until 1901.</p><br>
<p>Jeptha Wade II placed no limit on the cost of construction. and "more than $100,000" ($ in dollars). The cost of the window was not known, but was estimated at several tens of thousands of dollars.</p><br>
<p>Wade gave Joseph Carabelli, owner of a prominent local funerary monument firm, a $1,000 ($ in dollars) gift in appreciation of his excellent work in executing the marble work in the chapel&#39;s interior.</p><br>
<h2>About the chapel</h2><br>
<p>The modified Neoclassical building was T-shaped, with the rectangular chapel perpendicular to the rectangular crypt below. The exterior dimensions of the chapel are 33 ft from side to side and 63 ft from the front of the portico to the rear wall.</p><br>
<h3>Exterior</h3><br>
<p>The front of the chapel features a portico that extends somewhat further than usual from the chapel proper. The portico is supported by fluted columns with Ionic capitals. A low gable roof covers the chapel and portico, and features a pediment with an unadorned tympanum in front. The entablature has an featureless frieze, although the cornice is carved with dentils.</p><br>
<p>The exterior walls are clad in near-white Barre granite from Barre, Vermont. Jeptha Wade II wanted white terra cotta for the exterior, but this idea was abandoned when the architects pointed out that the surface of terra cotta could not be made completely smooth. The architects preferred white marble, both for its suitability for sculpture and because its white color more easily reflected the effects of light and shadow. The Norcross Marble Company of Cleveland and Tiffany & Co. both suggested using Georgia, Lee, Rutland, South Dover, and Tuckahoe marbles, but all of them had discoloration problems or chemical properties which led to discoloration, easy erosion, or pock-marking.</p><br>
<p>Wade asked for a longer-lasting stone, and the architects chose granite. Because granite could not be carved in fine lines, the architects abandoned most of the decorative scheme they had proposed for the exterior and increased the size of the blocks used in the exterior walls. A variety of granites were considered, including Concord, Hallowell, North Jay, Troy, Westerly, and Barre. Once more, color and chemical issues led to the rejection of most types of granites. (Hallowell granite was acceptable, but rejected as too expensive.) The final choice came down to Troy and Barre. The granite used is known as "light Barre" and as "standard Barre". It is a biotite granite with a very light bluish-gray color. It is very even-grained, with the texture ranging from fine to medium.</p><br>
<p>The granite came from the Standard Granite Quarries Co. quarry Forty railroad cars were required to haul it to Cleveland. The order was so large and important to the Barre granite industry that quarry owner William Barclay traveled to Cleveland in late 1898 to consult with the architects.</p><br>
<p>Three engaged columns of Barre granite are half-embedded in the side walls, while partially-embedded columns support each corner of the building. Two granite columns stand at the rear, and two on either side of the main entry door. The side and rear corner columns support 13 ft long granite cross beams, which in turn support the ceiling.</p><br>
<h3>Portico and vestibule</h3><br>
<p>The portico is supported by four columns of Barre granite, standing on Barre granite pedestals.</p><br>
<p>Bronze doors lead from the portico to the vestibule, which was lined with white marble from Georgia. Countersunk in an architrave over the chapel doors are the words "Erected in Memory of Jeptha H. Wade by his Grandson, A.D. MDCCCC".</p><br>
<h3>Chapel</h3><br>
<p>The chapels interior measures 26 by. The interior decor was designed and manufactured by Tiffany & Co., and Louis Comfort Tiffany personally sought out the commission. After winning the project, Tiffany traveled to Cleveland to consult with Hubbell & Benes about the decor design. Art historian Hugh F. McKean concludes that Tiffany probably designed the interior himself, as many elements of the chapel reflect those used in Tiffanys chapel for the World&#39;s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.</p><br>
<p>The wainscoting and ceiling are both made of white marble from Georgia. The chapel features a massive stained glass window at the rear and mosaics on each side wall.</p><br>
<p>The stained glass window, titled Resurrection or Flight of the Soul, was designed by Tiffany artisan Agnes Northrop. It was exhibited at the Paris Exposition of 1900 before being installed at the chapel.</p><br>
<p>Other elements of the chapel include a white Carrara marble lectern, white marble candlesticks atop the altar rail, and white mahogany pews. The sedilia, ceiling lamps, altar rail, candlesticks atop the altar rail, lectern, and casket pedestal are all made of white Carrara marble, often cut and carved with great delicacy and inlaid with colored glass, gold, and mother of pearl. Smaller clerestory windows of white frosted glass set in a heavy bronze grille are positioned above the chapel doors.</p><br>
<p>The chapel also features a casket pedestal behind the altar rail, in place of an altar. This pedestal can be lowered mechanically through the floor into crypt, where the receiving vault is located.</p><br>
<h3>Crypts and receiving vault</h3><br>
<p>The rectangular crypt rests on a specially designed platform made of sandstone. The crypt is 63 ft long.</p><br>
<p>The main facade of the crypt level features doors of bronze and windows barred with bronze grilles. Inside the crypt doors is an anteroom, from which a short corridor leads to the vaults. The "public" portion of the crypt can hold as many as 96 coffins. Two private receiving vaults also exist on the crypt level, closed off by marble doors. Each crypt is lined with Euclid bluestone (a bluish-colored sandstone quarried locally), while the cover of each crypt and all the interior walls of the crypt level are of white marble. Two small bronze grilles are set in each crypt cover, to ensure adequate ventilation. A ribbon of "subdued" colored stone, set at the height of a dado rail, provides the only color on the crypt level.</p><br>
<p>A short driveway gives access to the crypt entrance for the removal of caskets for burial.</p><br>
<h2>Critical assessment</h2><br>
<p>An anonymous writer for American Stone Trade praised Wade Memorial Chapel in 1916 as an "exquisite Greek temple". The industry journal focused particularly on the chapel&#39;s construction, noting, "In every detail it is perfectly finished, permanently bedded and jointed and of material in every way suitable for the purpose for which it is used." Alice Gould Pattinson of the American Federation of Arts called Wade Chapel one of the most notable monuments at Lake View.</p><br>
<p>The Fisher Building is 20-story, 275 ft neo-Gothic landmark building located at 343 South Dearborn Street in the Chicago Loop community area of Chicago. Commissioned by paper magnate Lucius Fisher, the original building was completed in 1896 by D.H. Burnham & Company with an addition later added in 1907.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>At the time of its completion, the building was one of two buildings in Chicago that was 18 stories or greater, the other being the Masonic Building (which was 21 stories tall). To this day, the Fisher Building is the oldest 18 story building in Chicago that has not been demolished. The Masonic Temple, while taller and older, was demolished in 1939.</p><br>
<p>The original structure was designed by Charles B. Atwood of D.H. Burnham & Company. In 1906, an addition on the northern side of the building raised it from 18 to 20 stories. A former employee of the Burnham firm, Peter J. Weber, designed and oversaw the building&#39;s addition which was completed in 1907.</p><br>
<p>The Fisher Building features terra-cotta carvings of various aquatic creatures including fish and crabs. In addition, there are eagles, dragons and mythical creatures depicted on the facade as well.</p><br>
<p>The building houses apartments on floors 3–20 and commercial stores on the first and second floors.</p><br>
<p>The Fisher Building was designated a Chicago Landmark on June 7, 1978, and was added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Notable Tenants (Past and Present)</h2><br>
<p>The main headquarters of the C.A. Dunham Company used to occupy the Fisher Building for most of the 20th Century. Dunham was the inventor of the thermostatic steam trap for use on radiator (heating) equipment, and a pioneer in the development of steam heating systems. As time went on, they merged with the Bush Manufacturing Company to become the. Later they purchased the Warren-Webster Company, another steam heating pioneer. Eventually the steam heating division was sold off to become Marshall Engineered Products Company or.</p><br>
<p>The building is currently host to Wheeler Kearns Architects and to numerous members of staff teaching at University of Illinois at Chicago and other institutions.</p><br>
<p>The Arc at Old Colony  is a 17-story landmark building in the Chicago Loop community area of Chicago, Illinois. Designed by the architectural firm Holabird & Roche in 1893–94, it stands at approximately 215 feet  and was the tallest building in Chicago at the time it was built. The building was designated a Chicago Landmark on July 7, 1978. It was the first tall building to use a system of internal portal arches as a means of bracing the structure against high winds.</p><br>
<p>The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1976. It is directly across the street to the west of the Harold Washington Library. The address of the Old Colony Building is 407 S. Dearborn Street.</p><br>
<p>Built as an office building, the Old Colony was converted to an apartment building in 2015. The building was fully remodeled and modernized upon the opening of the apartments, providing residents with amenities, public areas, and contemporary designs. The units are marketed to college students attending school in the South Loop.</p><br>
<p>The exterior of the building was used to represent the offices of the Independent News Service in the television series Kolchak The Night Stalker.</p><br>
<p>The Caguana Ceremonial Ball Courts Site  is an archaeological site located in Caguana, Utuado in Puerto Rico, considered to be one of the largest and most important Pre-Columbian sites in the West Indies. The site is known for its well-preserved ceremonial ball courts and petroglyph-carved monoliths. Studies estimate the in-situ courts to be over 700 years old, built by the Taíno around 1270 AD.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Approximately 13 ball courts and plazas (bateyes) have been identified and many have been restored to their original state. Monoliths and petroglyphs carved by the Taínos can be seen among the rocks and stones, some weighing over a ton, that were most likely brought from the Tanama River located adjacent to the site.</p><br>
<p>The site also contains the largest concentration of petroglyphs in the Antilles, most of which around found carved into the stone monoliths that form the bateyes or ball courts. Some of the most famous pictographs include a heron-like bird and atabeyra, also known as the "Caguana woman", attributed to the fertility zemi or goddess Atabey.</p><br>
<p>The plan of the site and the positions of the ball courts indicate an alignment with specific astronomical events, and the site might have functioned as a place to observe and possibly predict astronomical events such as planetary and stellar transits, conjunctions and alignments. Numerous of the petroglyphs depict astronomical objects such as the moon, stars and planets. Although the site is not listed as a world heritage site, its archaeoastronomical features are well-documented and recognized by the UNESCO Astronomy and World Heritage Initiative.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The site of the modern archaeological site was originally known as Corrales de los Indios (Spanish for "Indian corrals") by locals after the corral-like outlines of some of the ball courts. The first exploration and survey-works in the site were led by American anthropologist John Alden Mason in 1914. The site has been under continuous study since the 1930s, at first by archaeologists from Yale University such as Irvin Rouse, and later by the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture (ICP) and Dr. Ricardo Alegría. The ICP acquired the site in 1965 and invested in the restoration of its archaeological resources and on interpretative infrastructure for visitors. The interpretative park and a small museum were first opened to visitors that same year.</p><br>
<p>The museum remained closed from 2020 until june of 2024 when it reopened with a more thorough collection of more than 200 archaeological pieces. A digital version of the museum titled Museo Digital de Caguana was launched in 2024 by the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture.</p><br>
<h2>Designations</h2><br>
<p>The Institute of Puerto Rican Culture still manages the site as a park under the name Caguana Indigenous Ceremonial Center (Parque Ceremonial Indígena de Caguana). The National Park Service has placed it on the National Register of Historic Places, and designated it as a National Historic Landmark (under the name Caguana Site). It was listed on the National Register in 1992 and designated a USA National Historic Landmark in 1993. It was also listed on the Puerto Rico Register of Historic Sites and Zones in 2001.</p><br>
<p>The park also includes a small museum containing Taíno artifacts, archaeological exhibits and a small botanical garden featuring some of the plants the Taínos harvested for food such as sweet potatoes, cassava, corn, and yautía. Many of the trees used by the Taínos to construct their homes (bohíos), such as mahogany and ceiba can also be seen throughout the park.</p><br>
<p>Scenes at Caguana Ceremonial Ball Courts Site:</p><br>
<p>CemiMountain.jpgStones and mountain behind</p><br>
<p>Caguana Ceremonial Ball Courts Site, Utuado, Puerto Rico.jpgCaguana Ceremonial Ball Courts Site</p><br>
<p>Parque Ceremonial Indigena de Caguana, Puerto Porico — Geoff Gallice 002.jpgBall Court</p><br>
<p>Parque Ceremonial Indigena 02.jpgBird drawn on stone</p><br>
<p>Parque Ceremonial Indigena en Utuado.jpgFaces drawn on stones</p><br>
<p>BohioTaino.jpgTraditional Bohio like the ones built by the Taino</p><br>
<p>Erected in 1927, the Victory Monument, is a bronze and granite sculptural monument, based on a concept by John A. Nyden, and sculpted by Leonard Crunelle. It was built to honor the Eighth Regiment of the Illinois National Guard, an African-American unit that served with distinction in France during World War I. It may be the only memorial statue dedicated to African-American soldiers of the Great War.</p><br>
<p>The memorial monument is located in the Black Metropolis-Bronzeville District in the Douglas community area on the South Side of Chicago, Illinois. The structure was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 30, 1986. An annual Memorial Day ceremony is held at the monument.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Smithsonian Institution’s Archives of American Art describes the monument:</p><br>
<p>In 1908 while Aaron Montgomery Ward was contesting the land use law for Grant Park for a second time in the Illinois Supreme Court, the Art Institute of Chicago considered locating the Fountain of the Great Lakes at 35th Street and Grand Boulevard (the latter has been renamed as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Drive.) Instead, the Victory Monument was installed at this intersection.</p><br>
<p>The Bud Billiken Parade has for many years traveled along King Drive. In some years, the Parade has started at 31st and King and in other years it has started as far south as 39th and King Drive. It has often started very near this monument.</p><br>
<p>In 2017, the monument received a grant for restoration as part of World War I centennial activities.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>The monument features 4 bronze panels and a sculpture of a soldier atop that was added in 1936. To the north of the monument is a court with 4 plaques in the large tilings. The plaques honor Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr., Truman Gibson, Sr./Truman Gibson, Jr., Franklin A. Denison, & George R. Giles. To the south of the monument is a flagpole that flies the United States flag, Flag of Chicago, POW/MIA flag.</p><br>
<p>The Roe A. and Louise R. Deal House is an historic house in Springville, Utah, United States. The house was added to the USA National Register of Historic Places in 1998. Along with eleven other properties, the Deal House was nominated to the National Register via the Springville Multiple Property Submission.</p><br>
<p>The NRHP nomination for the house argues that it "is significant in the broad patterns of Springville history</p><br>
<p>as an example of the larger, more substantially constructed homes built during the late nineteenth and</p><br>
<p>early twentieth centuries", and that it demonstrates the development in Springville of awareness of popular architectural styles elsewhere.</p><br>
<p>Deal–Mendenhall Hall is a historic residence within the Springville Historic District in Springville, Utah, United States, that is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The house is located at 163 East 200 North and was built in 1896 It was part of the Springville Multiple Property Submission which added eleven Springville properties to National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>It was a home of the family of Romanzo A. Deal, a businessman and civic leader of Springville, and it was later a home of the family of Guy Mendenhall.</p><br>
<p>It was listed on the NRHP on January 5, 1998.</p><br>
<p>The Union Station, at 801 South 10th Street in Omaha, Nebraska, known also as Union Passenger Terminal, is "one of the finest examples of Art Deco architecture in the Midwest". Designated an Omaha Landmark in 1978, it was listed as "Union Passenger Terminal" on the National Register of Historic Places in 1971, and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2016. The Union Station is also a contributing property to the Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District. It was the Union Pacific&#39;s first Art Deco railroad station, and the completion of the terminal "firmly established Omaha as an important railroad terminus in the Midwest".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The second depot was designed by Chicago architect Charles Sumner Frost, and construction began in October, 1898. Completed on December 1, 1899 at a cost of $405,782, the building&#39;s façade rose 60 ft above the Tenth Street Viaduct the building faced. It was primarily built from pressed brick made in Omaha, as well as Bedford stone used in the architectural details. A canopy of glass and iron protected passengers from the elements as they entered the station.</p><br>
<h3>Current structure</h3><br>
<p>The construction of the station was preceded by the construction of the Burlington Train Station one block away. Within ten years that station was served by seven railroads. Upon its completion, the Union Station became renowned for its technological innovations, including electric luggage conveyor belts, escalators and extensive lighting throughout the building. Simultaneously, patrons and critics alike appreciated the traditional and lavish attributes of the building, including massive women&#39;s restrooms, beautiful marble columns and flooring throughout, and deep oak woodwork surrounding every window and door in the station. During its first year, 1.5 million passengers passed through.</p><br>
<p>By 1946, 64 steam locomotives were in operation bringing 10,000 passengers daily in and out of the Union Station. However, within a decade everything changed. In 1956 the Chicago and North Western Railroad stopped its line running through Omaha. 1960 saw the exit of Wabash Railroad. In 1965 the Missouri Pacific Railroad and the Chicago Great Western Railway quit running, followed by the Rock Island Railroad in 1969. Passenger service ceased in 1971, and the Union Station was donated to the City of Omaha by the Union Pacific Railroad in 1973.</p><br>
<p>That year the station quickly became the home of the Durham Museum. The Union Pacific Museum and Archives were also located there. In 1997 the Union Station underwent a renovation that included a 22,000 ft&sup2; addition and new climate controls for the museum, and today the building is a contributing property to the Omaha Rail and Commerce Historic District, bordering the Old Market Historic District and Omaha&#39;s Little Italy.</p><br>
<p>The Nathaniel Hill Brick House, locally referred to as just the Brick House, is located on NY 17K in the Orange County, New York Town of Montgomery. It was built in 1768 by Hill, one of the earliest settlers of the region. His family has lived there ever since. Nathaniel Hill was born in 1705, emigrated from Ireland in about 1725, and died May 5, 1780. At the time of his death, he was the owner and possessor of some 700 acre of land. Hill originally built a home in the town of Crawford, New York, which he only lived in for two years. He left that home to his son James, who made Applejack Brandy there. The first public record of Hill is his enlistment in Captain Bayard&#39;s militia in 1738.</p><br>
<p>The Brick House was passed down for seven generations, from Nathaniel Hill, to Captain Peter Hill (July 22, 1752 – October 14, 1795), to Nathaniel Peter Hill (Feb. 14, 1781 – May 2, 1841), to Augustus Hill (May 4, 1838 – November 2, 1903) to Charles Borland Hill (June 5, 1868 – 1959), to C.B. Hill, Jr. (Nov. 30, 1901–?), to C.B. Hill III (May 26, 1931–?). But it was originally made as a retirement house for Nathaniel Hill.</p><br>
<p>The house was featured in Good Housekeeping magazine, the December 1968 edition.</p><br>
<p>The house was donated by C.B. Hill, Jr. on Dec. 26, 1975, to the County of Orange, it was entered on the National Register of Historic Places on Jan. 5, 1978, and opened as a museum June 22, 1978.</p><br>
<p>Much of the original design and appointments (including some Chippendale furniture pieces) remain, though improvements have been made. In the 1830s the Hills added a large rear wing to the house and renovated part of the interior; almost a century later indoor plumbing was added.</p><br>
<p>The Hills have cooperated with the county in allowing the land around the house to be used as a park, and the Orange County Farmers&#39; Museum. It and their house are open 10 a.m. – 4:30 p.m. on weekends between mid-May and early October (actual dates vary each year). Admission is $3 for adults and $2 for children.</p><br>
<p>The Old Chicago Water Tower District is a historic district along the Magnificent Mile shopping district in the Near North Side community area of Chicago, Illinois. The district is located on both sides of North Michigan Avenue between East Chicago and East Pearson Streets. It includes the Chicago Water Tower, Chicago Avenue Pumping Station, and Chicago Fire Department Fire Station No. 98. All three structures are part of the Chicago Landmark district designated on October 6, 1971 . The Water Tower and Pumping Station were jointly added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 23, 1975. In addition the Tower was named an American Water Landmark in 1969. The Water Tower was also one of the few buildings to survive the Great Chicago Fire. The district is the namesake of the nearby Water Tower Place.</p><br>
<p>The district was once called Tower Town or Towertown and was known for its bohemian artists and nightlife in the early 20th century. In the 1910s, artists moved into an area near Pine St (now North Michigan Avenue) that was being deserted by affluent residents. Tower Town was the resultant artistic district, and it was successful in part because of its proximity to affluent patrons who remained on the Gold Coast. A new bridge connecting the area to the Chicago Loop helped transform Tower Town into an expensive commercial district. Bars and nightclubs in the area included Chez Pierre, the Dil Pickle Club, Kelly&#39;s Stables, the Little Club, the Paradise Club and the Tent.</p><br>
<p>Columbus Park is a 135 acre park located on the far West Side of Chicago, Illinois, in the Austin neighborhood. It is considered the finest work by landscape architect Jens Jensen and was consequently named a National Historic Landmark in 2003.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The concept of Columbus Park was first pitched in 1912 by the West Park Commission as a way to develop recreational facilities for densely populated neighborhoods. At the time, the West Side of Chicago had a population of nearly 900,000, but only two small playgrounds. The commission had acquired the property a year earlier from the Catholic church for $560,000; the church had recently abandoned plans to build a seminary on the site. It was the first large park conceived by the commission since 1869. Jens Jensen was a Danish immigrant who joined the commission in the 1880s as a laborer and rose to the rank of chief landscape artist and general superintendent of the system by 1905. Columbus Park was Jensen&#39;s first large park, and he began designing it in 1915.</p><br>
<p>The park was largely completed by 1920, when Jensen was removed from his position by Illinois Governor Frank Lowden. The only uncompleted section was the refectory and boathouse. The new West Park Commissioners ignored Jensen&#39;s plan and instead hired local architectural firm Chatten & Hammond, who completed the structure in 1923. Although a contradiction to the rest of the park, the refectory was well received. Works Progress Administration funds in the late 1930s allowed for the conversion of an old stable building into a gymnasium. The funds also allowed for the replanting of the landscape. In 1953, the southern 9 acre of Columbus Park were demolished to make way for the Eisenhower Expressway. The waterfalls and surrounding landscape were restored in 1991; the refectory was restored a few years later. The park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 20, 1991, and designated a National Historic Landmark on July 31, 2003. It is considered one of "150 great places in Illinois" by the American Institute of Architects.</p><br>
<p>In celebration of the 2018 Illinois Bicentennial, Columbus Park was selected as one of the Illinois 200 Great Places by the American Institute of Architects Illinois component (AIA Illinois).</p><br>
<h2>Landscape</h2><br>
<p>The 135 acre park reflected Jensens Prairie School approach to landscape design. This method emphasized the areas natural beauty and was inspired by the prairie landscapes horizontality. Jensen preferred to use native plants in his designs, a technique that was rare at the time. Inspired by natural rock outcroppings in the Midwest, Jensens stonework is exemplified by his waterfalls, council ring, and stone paths. Buildings in the part constructed prior to 1920 also reflect his Prairie approach. Schmidt, Garden & Martin designed massive entry lanterns for the east entrance in this motif, and evidence suggests that noted Prairie School architect John S. Van Bergen may have designed a small playground shelter.</p><br>
<p>The Louisville Metro Hall is the center of Louisville, Kentuckys government. It currently houses the Mayors Office and the Jefferson County Clerk&#39;s Office for marriage licensing, delinquent tax filings, and the deeds room. The building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. Construction began in 1836, and both the City of Louisville and Jefferson County governments starting using it in 1842.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>The architect, Gideon Shryock, had intended for the courthouse to have a six-column Doric portico, a cupola, and additional porticos on the wings. The building would be completed by metopes and plain friezes as a full entablature, and engaged pilasters regularly sequenced. Shryock resigned from the project in 1842. It was finally completed in 1860, with Albert Fink, a bridge engineer, and Charles Stancliff in charge. Fink reduced the number of columns for the Doric portico, and did not build the additional porticos and cupola. The Louisville Daily Journal said it was an "elephantine monstrosity".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>With design occurring in 1835, When the courthouse was originally built, it was hoped that it would be the Statehouse for Kentucky. This hope was the goal of James Guthrie, but due to the capital staying in Frankfort, it became known as "Guthrie&#39;s folly". It did see some state government use during the American Civil War, when it housed the Kentucky State Legislature for a month in 1862 when Frankfort was occupied by Confederate forces.</p><br>
<p>After a fire in 1905, the building was renovated by Brinton B. Davis. When Frank Lloyd Wright visited Louisville in 1948, he referred specifically to the Courthouse when he said, "Louisville&#39;s architecture represents the quality of the old South; we should not build this type of building anymore but we should keep those we have left." This was after efforts in the 1940s to demolish it for urban renewal.</p><br>
<p>The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. Improvements to the building includes placing a statue of Henry Clay, designed by Joel T. Hart, on the main floors, and extensive renovations in the 1980s. The Jefferson County Courthouse Annex at 517 Court Pl. was listed on the National Register in 1980.</p><br>
<p>Louisville Metro Hall was formerly named the Jefferson County Courthouse. Since the merger of the former City of Louisville with Jefferson County, the building was renamed to Louisville Metro Hall and now primarily houses the offices of the Mayor of Louisville Metro. In addition, the offices of the Jefferson County Clerk, the Kentucky Court of Appeals and the Kentucky Supreme Court Justice for the Louisville district are located in this building.</p><br>
<h2>Statues</h2><br>
<p>There are two prominently-sited statues outside the Courthouse. In front of the building is a statue of Thomas Jefferson by Moses Jacob Ezekiel, given to the city in 1901.</p><br>
<p>The second, on the corner of Sixth and Jefferson and across from the Louisville City Hall, is a statue of King Louis XVI. It was presented as a gift to Louisville from Louisvilles sister city, Montpellier, France, on July 17, 1967. At the presentation, a crowd of 300 dignitaries, both French and American, saw Montpelliers Mayor François Delmas officially present it to Louisville Mayor Kenneth Schmied.</p><br>
<p>The statue of King Louis XVI was sculpted in 1829 by Achille-Joseph Valois for the kings surviving daughter, Marie-Thérèse, queen dowager of France, and made its public debut in Montpellier. However, a year later during the Second French Revolution, it was moved to a military base for protection, then at Montpellier University, and finally in the municipal archives storage basement. In 1899, the statue was found to have deteriorated with a damaged arm, but remained in storage. It was decided in 1966 to give the statue to Louisville, making a seven-month journey between Montpellier and Louisville. The Carrara marble statue weighs nine tons, and is 12 ft high.</p><br>
<p>The statue&#39;s right hand was destroyed in May 2020 during protests over the killing of Breonna Taylor.</p><br>
<p>File:Louis XVI statue JCC.jpgAnother view of King Louis XVI statue</p><br>
<p>File:Louis XVI JCC pedestal.jpgPedestal of Louis XVI statue</p><br>
<p>File:Thomas Jefferson JCC statue.jpgThomas Jefferson statue</p><br>
<p>The Louisville Water Tower, located east of downtown Louisville, Kentucky, near the riverfront, is the oldest ornamental water tower in the world, having been built before the more famous Chicago Water Tower. Both the actual water tower and its pumping station are a designated National Historic Landmark for their architecture. As with the Fairmount Water Works of Philadelphia , the industrial nature of its pumping station was disguised in the form of a Roman temple complex.</p><br>
<p>In 2014, the Louisville WaterWorks Museum opened on the premises.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Unknown to residents at the time, the lack of a safe water supply presented a significant health risk to the city. After the arrival of the second cholera pandemic in the United States (1832), Louisville in the 1830s and 40s gained the nickname "graveyard of the west", due to the polluted local water giving Louisville residents cholera and typhoid at epidemic levels. This was because residents used the water of tainted private wells, but the linkage was not discovered until 1854 by the English physician John Snow, and not accepted as fact until decades later. Due to the water project&#39;s completion in 1866, Louisville was free of cholera during the epidemic of 1873.</p><br>
<p>After several devastating fires in the 1850s, Louisvillians were convinced of the importance of the project. The decision was made by the Kentucky Legislature to form the Louisville Water Company on March 6, 1854. Private investors showed little interest and so after only 55 shares had been sold and the failure of a first attempt to secure voter approval to buy shares, the project was widely promoted. In 1856 voters approved purchase of 5500 shares in 1856, and another 2200 shares in 1859, transforming it into an almost completely government-owned corporation.</p><br>
<p>The inspiration for the architecture of Louisvilles Water Tower came from the French architect Claude Nicolas Ledoux, who merged "architectural beauty with industrial efficiency". Even the reservoirs gatehouse on the riverfront invoked the castles along the Rhine.</p><br>
<p>The water tower began operations on October 16, 1860. The tower was not just pretty; it was effective. In 24 hours the station could produce 12 million US gallons (45,000 m) of water. This water, in turn, flowed through 26 miles (42 km) of pipe.</p><br>
<p>A tornado on March 27, 1890 irreparably changed the Water Tower. The original water tower had an iron pipe protected by a wood-paneled shaft, but after the tornado destroyed it, it was replaced with cast iron. The tornado also destroyed all but two of the ten statues that were on the pedestals. Shortly thereafter, a new pumping station and reservoirs were built in Crescent Hill, and the original water tower ceased pumping operations in 1909. The pumping station was renovated in 2010.</p><br>
<p>In January 2013, extensive renovations of the water tower property, including the addition of the Louisville WaterWorks Museum, began, and the museum opened on March 1, 2014.</p><br>
<h2>Statues</h2><br>
<p>There are ten zinc statues above the first level&#39;s balustrade, each standing on a pedestal over a Corinthian column. They are listed clockwise below with identifiable features:</p><br>
<p>An Indian hunter: a tomahawk and a dog on a leash. He represents possibly the element earth.</p><br>
<p>A Danaide: emptying a large amphora on her raised leg. She represents "tasks that are never complete".</p><br>
<p>Mercury: winged helmet.</p><br>
<p>Winter: headscarf, censer of flame in hand. (The four seasons here are all women.)</p><br>
<p>Hebe: raising a small jug above her head, a cup in the other hand.</p><br>
<p>Neptune: a trident.</p><br>
<p>Spring: a flower bud in one hand, a basket in another.</p><br>
<p>Flora: a wreath in her hand.</p><br>
<p>Summer: shielding her eyes from the sun with her hand.</p><br>
<p>Autumn: a plate of harvest, grapes in her hair.</p><br>
<p>The statues were originally urns in the plans. The first set of statues included Ceres, Diana, and a girl in a bonnet.</p><br>
<p>File:Louisville Water Tower.jpgView of the tower from Duffy&#39;s Landing in Jeffersonville, Indiana</p><br>
<p>File:LWT Inscription.jpgInscription upon the tower</p><br>
<p>File:LWT Statues.jpgThe Indian, Autumn, Summer, and Flora</p><br>
<p>File:LWT Indian.jpgMercury, the Danaide, and the Indian</p><br>
<p>File:LWT Distant.jpgA view from Zorn Avenue of the Tower</p><br>
<p>The Egyptian Theatre is a historic movie theatre in Coos Bay, Oregon, United States.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Egyptian was built by Charles Noble, a descendant of one of the area&#39;s first settlers, in 1922. He spent $200,000 to convert the garage into the theater in 1925. The building was designed by Lee Arden Thomas and Albert Mercier and includes piers decorated with papyrus blossoms, wrought-iron ceiling lights in the form of hooded cobras, and stairways with 8 ft pharaoh statues. The main theatre seats 770 and is an example of the Egyptian Theatre style of Egyptian Revival architecture that was popular in the early 20th century in the USA, especially following the 1922 discovery of the tomb of King Tut. The theatre also has all of its original vaudeville backdrops. The theatre originally had one screen but the balcony was converted to house two screens in 1976, increasing the seating capacity to 1,000.</p><br>
<p>In 2000, the Egyptian housed the only theatre organ still in its original theatre in Oregon, a 4/18 Mighty Wurlitzer pipe organ. In 2010, it was one of four remaining theatres in the Egyptian Revival style in the United States The building was listed on the USA National Register of Historic Places on May 24, 2010. With unfunded $3 million renovations needed, the theatre was one of ten entries on the Historic Preservation League of Oregon&#39;s Most Endangered Places in Oregon list in 2011.</p><br>
<p>The Colden Family Cemetery  is a Registered Historic Place in the Town of Montgomery in Orange County, New York, United States. It is located off Maple Avenue south of NY 17K, surrounded by a small stone wall.</p><br>
<p>Note: This includes</p><br>
<p>It was established in the 1780s by the descendants of area resident Cadwallader Colden, one of the last colonial governors of New York. The ruins of the family home are at the junction of 17K and NY 747, approximately a mile (1.6 km) to the northeast. While Colden himself is buried another private cemetery in the Queens community of Flushing where he died, a tablet was erected in his memory at the entrance. Many of his progeny are here, along with some of the family&#39;s slaves and members of other families. The earliest grave is that of his last wife Elizabeth, who died in 1782. The most recent grave is that of Anna Colden Harris, who died in 1937.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005.</p><br>
<p>St. Augustine Catholic Church, also called Olde St. Augustine&#39;s, is a historic Catholic church in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Consecrated in 1848, the Palladian-style church was designed by Napoleon LeBrun. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>The church was built to replace the Old St. Augustine Church which was completed in 1801. The first Order of Hermits of St. Augustine church founded in the United States, the original St Augustine housed the Liberty Bell&#39;s "Sister Bell". The church was burned down in the anti-Catholic Philadelphia Nativist Riots on May 8, 1844. The church sued the city of Philadelphia for not providing it with adequate protection. The money awarded to the church went to rebuilding the current church, which broke ground on May 27, 1847. Organizations founded by the church led to the creation of both Villanova University and the Philadelphia Orchestra.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Old church</h3><br>
<p>Fathers Matthew Carr and John Rosseter were sent to Philadelphia by the Roman Catholic Church to buy land to build a church in the city. St. Augustines Church began construction in 1796 to a design by Philadelphia architect Nicholas FitzMaurice Fagan (d. 1810) and was the first Order of Hermits of St. Augustine church founded in the United States. After delays as a result of yellow fever outbreaks among the workers and funding issues, the church was completed in 1801. Contributors for construction of St. Augustines included President George Washington, John Barry, Stephen Girard, and Thomas Fitzsimons; the largest individual donation was $200 from merchant John Leamy.</p><br>
<p>In 1811, the St. Augustine Academy, a boys&#39; school, was founded; the school included the largest theological library in the city. The origins of Villanova University are traced back to St. Augustine Academy.</p><br>
<p>The church became a center of musical activity in the city. In 1820 a musical celebration to raise funds for the church attracted attention and musicians around the United States.</p><br>
<p>On May 27, 1821, Bishop Henry Conwell excommunicated William Hogan at the church.</p><br>
<p>A cupola and tower were added to the church in 1829. Loaned to the church in the late 1820s by Independence Hall, the "Sister Bell", a bell that had been cast to replace the cracked Liberty Bell, was placed in St. Augustine&#39;s tower.</p><br>
<p>By the 1840s, Philadelphias Irish Catholic population was growing rapidly due to immigrants settling in the city. In 1838, half the churchs parishioners were Irish-born and only one-sixth of St. Augustine&#39;s parishioners were born in the United States. The rising immigrant and Catholic population was fueling nativist and anti-Catholic groups in Philadelphia. Tensions spread by rumors that Catholics were trying to ban the Bible from public schools led to the Nativist Riots of 1844.</p><br>
<p>Violence beginning on May 6 in the Kensington District led to a mob gathering in front of St Augustines Church on May 8. The city troops had stationed themselves near the church and Mayor John Morin Scott pleaded with the rioters for calm. Despite Mayor Scotts pleas, he was pelted with rocks and the church was set afire. The church was destroyed, the crowd cheering when the cupola fell. The St. Augustine Academy, including many of its rare books, was also destroyed.</p><br>
<h3>Current church</h3><br>
<p>During the three months after the church was destroyed, St. Augustines congregation was allowed to use Old St. Josephs Church. Three months after the riot, a new temporary church, the chapel of Our Lady of Consolation, was built and dedicated on October 27, 1844. This chapel fronted on Crown St., now N. Lawrence St., and adjoined St. Augustine&#39;s when the church was later rebuilt. Our Lady of Consolation was torn down in 1871 to make way for parish schools on Crown St. The friars of St. Augustine sued the city of Philadelphia for not providing the church enough protection during the riots, claiming US$80,000 in damages. The city argued that the friars could not claim their civil rights were violated as the Order of St. Augustine was a foreign organization under the authority of the Pope. The city also argued that the friars took a vow of poverty and could not be property owners. The Augustinians ended up proving the Order St. Augustine was incorporated in the US in 1804 and was awarded US$45,000.</p><br>
<p>The cornerstone of the new church was laid on May 27, 1847, and the church was completed in December 1848. The church was consecrated by Bishop Francis Kenrick and Archbishop John Hughes presided over High Mass on November 5, 1848. The church continued to be a center of musical activity. A music director at St. Augustine founded the Choral Society of Philadelphia, which, along with musicians at the church, were involved in the organization of the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1900. Philadelphias first performance of George Frideric Handels Messiah was held at the church.</p><br>
<p>On June 15, 1976, St. Augustines Church was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. By 1988 the congregation of St. Augustine had shrunk to fewer than a dozen. The 1990s saw the congregation grow with Filipino Catholics from Philadelphia and the citys suburbs. In December 1992 an exact replica of Santo Niño de Cebú was dedicated, and Filipinos have held a special mass and festivals for Santo Niño. Also in December 1992, a storm severely damaged the church&#39;s steeple. Debris from the steeple fell onto the Benjamin Franklin Bridge, which had to be closed for three days. The steeple had to be disassembled and removed. From the damaged roof, the church and art inside suffered water damage. A new steeple was erected on October 18, 1995. The steeple restoration was documented by Brawer & Hauptman, Architects and was fabricated by Campbellsville Industries, "The Steeple People", located in Campbellsville, Kentucky.</p><br>
<p>St. Augustine&#39;s was featured in the 1999 thriller The Sixth Sense, and the 2007 action movie Shooter.</p><br>
<p>In 2019, St. Augustine was featured in the film 21 Bridges.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Old St. Augustine Church was designed by Nicholas FitzMaurice Fagan, whose father-in-law, lumber merchant John Walsh, provided most of the lumber for the church. The church, designed in Roman Style, was twenty-five feet long and sixty-two feet wide. Its interior included a life-sized statue of the Crucifixion (1810) by sculptor William Rush. The tower and cupola added in 1829 was designed by William Strickland, who also designed the Merchant&#39;s Exchange and the Second Bank of the United States.</p><br>
<p>The current church was designed by architect Napoleon LeBrun, who also designed the Academy of Music. The church is an example of Palladian architecture. The main arched altar consists of white marble with shafts of Mexican onyx that border the tabernacle. Framing the altar is an archway supported by Corinthian columns. Above the altar sits a domed skylight. Stained-glass windows, each dedicated to a saint, allow in light throughout the church.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>St. Mary Interparochial Grade School is the designated grade school of St. Augustine.</p><br>
<p>The Stephen A. Douglas Tomb and Memorial or Stephen Douglas Monument Park is a memorial that includes the tomb of United States Senator Stephen A. Douglas . It is located at 636 E. 35th Street in the Bronzeville neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois , near the site of the Union Army and prisoner of war Camp Douglas. The land was originally owned by Douglas’ estate but was sold to the state of Illinois, when it became known as “Camp Douglas” serving first as training grounds for Union soldiers during the Civil War, then as a prisoner of war camp.</p><br>
<p>The memorial is a 96-foot granite structure comprising three circular bases and a 20-foot diameter octagonal mausoleum which holds Douglas’ sarcophagus. Large bronze allegorical figures portraying “Illinois,” “History,” “Justice,” and “Eloquence” are positioned at the four main corners of the mausoleum. Four bas-reliefs in the panels of the main base depict the advance of American civilization. A ten-foot statue of the Douglas stands atop a 46 ft column of white marble from his native state, Vermont.</p><br>
<p>Douglas, best remembered for debating Abraham Lincoln over slavery, died from typhoid fever on June 3, 1861 in Chicago, where he was buried on the shore of Lake Michigan. Immediately after his death an association of notable Chicagoans was formed to oversee the construction of a suitable tomb and monument, but its members failed to raise sufficient funds. In 1865 the state of Illinois purchased the tomb from Douglas widow, Adele Douglas, for $25,000. On June 3, 1868, Douglas body was placed in the completed portion of the tomb. Leonard Volk, a relative of Douglas by marriage, designed the tomb and</p><br>
<p>monument. In 1871 the Great Chicago Fire destroyed Volk&#39;s plans for the unfinished structure. The tomb was completed in May 1881, after an expense of $90,000.</p><br>
<p>The memorial was designated a Chicago Landmark on September 28, 1977. The tomb is maintained by the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency as a state historic site.</p><br>
<p>The Dunsmuir House and Gardens  is located in Oakland, California on a 50 acre site. The Dunsmuir House has a neoclassical-revival architectural style and is listed in the USA National Register of Historic Places. It is now used primarily for weddings, receptions, business gatherings and historical reenactment events.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The house was built in 1899 by Alexander Dunsmuir, son of Robert Dunsmuir, a wealthy coal magnate from Victoria, BC. Dunsmuir, who came to the San Francisco Bay Area in 1878 to manage the family business, intended the house to be a wedding gift for his new bride but didn&#39;t get to live in it with her as he fell ill and died while on his honeymoon in New York. His new bride returned to live in the home but soon died herself in 1901.</p><br>
<p>I.W. Hellman Jr. purchased the estate in 1906 as a summer home for his family and by 1913 the mansion was remodeled for the larger family&#39;s needs as well as to hold their growing acquisitions from European travel.</p><br>
<p>Mrs. Hellman kept the estate well into the 1950s after her husband&#39;s death in 1920. During this time additions included the swimming pool and Dinkelspiel House and a good deal of landscape development on the northern end of the estate.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1960s, the mansion and lands were purchased by the City of Oakland with the intention of using it as a conference center. When this project didn&#39;t work out, a non-profit organization was formed in 1971 to preserve and restore the estate for the public benefit and for many years, the non-profit group and the City jointly operated the estate.</p><br>
<p>In June 1989, the non-profit organization took over most of the administrative duties and dubbed the grounds the Dunsmuir House and Gardens with its primary function to be as an educational, historical, cultural, and horticultural resource. The mansion has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places by the United States Department of the Interior and both the mansion and the Carriage house have been designated Historic Landmarks by the City of Oakland.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds and gardens</h2><br>
<p>Golden Gate Park&#39;s landscape architect, John McLaren, is rumored to have assisted the Hellmans in designing the Dunsmuir gardens which includes a wide variety of trees, including Camperdown Elms, Bunya-Bunya and Hornbeam trees. In addition, the Hellman estate contained a golf course, formal croquet court, tennis court, swimming pool with Mission-style bathhouse, glass conservatory with grotto, an elaborate aviary, formal garden maze, and Japanese garden. Deer, wild turkeys and water fowl also make the estate their home.</p><br>
<h2>Mansion</h2><br>
<p>The Dunsmuir mansion was designed by the San Francisco architect J. Eugene Freeman and is an example of Neoclassical-Revival architecture which was popular in the late 1800s. The 37-room mansion is 16,224 square feet and features 10 fireplaces, a Tiffany-style dome, wood paneled public rooms and inlaid parquet floors. The servant quarters in the house are designed to accommodate 12 live-in staff.</p><br>
<h2>Current uses</h2><br>
<p>Docents lead tours of the estate grounds and the 37-room Dunsmuir Mansion on Wednesdays and the first Sunday of the month from April – September (except for July).</p><br>
<p>The non-profit organization rents out all or part of the property for various occasions such as weddings, corporate engagements, auctions, and historic reenactment gatherings. However, the estate has also been used as a location or background for several movies and television shows, such as:</p><br>
<p>Burnt Offerings (1976)</p><br>
<p>Phantasm (1979)</p><br>
<p>Partners in Crime (1984)</p><br>
<p>A View to a Kill (1985)</p><br>
<p>The Vineyard (1989)</p><br>
<p>So I Married an Axe Murderer (1993)</p><br>
<p>Nash Bridges (1996)</p><br>
<p>Gloria (1999)</p><br>
<p>True Crime (1999)</p><br>
<p>Case #13 (2014 film)</p><br>
<p>Delirium (2018)</p><br>
<p>The Dayton Project was a research and development project to produce polonium during World War II, as part of the larger Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bombs. Work took place at several sites in and around Dayton, Ohio. Those working on the project were ultimately responsible for creating the polonium-based modulated neutron initiators that were used to begin the chain reactions in the atomic bombs.</p><br>
<p>The Dayton Project began in 1943 when Monsantos Charles Allen Thomas was recruited by the Manhattan Project to coordinate the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at various sites. Scientists at the Los Alamos Laboratory calculated that a plutonium bomb would require a neutron initiator. The best-known neutron sources used radioactive polonium and beryllium, so Thomas undertook to produce polonium at Monsantos laboratories in Dayton. While most Manhattan Project activity took place at remote locations, the Dayton Project was located in a populated, urban area. It ran from 1943 to 1949, when the Mound Laboratories were completed in nearby Miamisburg, Ohio, and the work moved there.</p><br>
<p>The Dayton Project developed techniques for extracting polonium from the lead dioxide ore in which it occurs naturally, and from bismuth targets that had been bombarded by neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Ultimately, polonium-based neutron initiators were used in both the gun-type Little Boy and the implosion-type Fat Man used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. The fact that polonium was used as an initiator was classified until the 1960s, but George Koval, a technician with the Manhattan Project&#39;s Special Engineer Detachment, penetrated the Dayton Project as a spy for the Soviet Union.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>In December 1942, during World War II, Charles Allen Thomas, a chemist and director of research at Monsanto in St. Louis, joined the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) as the deputy chief of its Division 8, which was responsible for propellants, explosives and the like. Early in 1943, he traveled to the east with Richard C. Tolman, a member of the NDRC, and James B. Conant, the president of Harvard University and the chairman of the NDRC, to witness a demonstration of a new underwater explosive. Conant and Tolman took the opportunity to quietly investigate Thomas&#39; background. He was then invited to a meeting in Washington D.C., with Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., the director of the wartime Manhattan Project responsible for building an atomic bomb. When he got there, Thomas found Conant was also present.</p><br>
<p>Groves and Conant were hoping to harness Thomas&#39;s industrial expertise. They offered him a post as a deputy to Robert Oppenheimer, the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, but he did not wish to move his family or give up his responsibilities at Monsanto. Instead, he accepted the role of coordinating the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at Los Alamos, the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago, Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, and Ames Laboratory in Iowa. Chemistry and metallurgy at Los Alamos would be led by the youthful Joseph W. Kennedy.</p><br>
<p>At Los Alamos, physicist Robert Serber proposed that instead of relying on spontaneous fission, the chain reaction inside the atomic bomb should be triggered by a neutron initiator. The best-known neutron sources were radium-beryllium and polonium-beryllium. The latter was chosen, as polonium has a 138-day half-life, which made it intense enough to be useful but not long-lived enough to be stockpiled. Thomas took charge of the development of techniques to industrially refine polonium for use with beryllium in the "urchin" internal neutron initiators. This effort became the Dayton Project.</p><br>
<h2>Organization</h2><br>
<p>Thomas brought in key personnel from Monsantos Thomas and Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio, including Caroll Hochwalt, James Lum and Nicholas Samaras. Thomas became Director of the Dayton Project, with Hochwalt as Assistant Project Director and Lum as Laboratory Director. They decided that about twelve chemists would be required, and Lum set about recruiting professors, graduate students and industrial chemists from universities and laboratories in the area. The first of these recruits commenced in August 1943, but few had any experience with radiochemistry. Numbers increased from 46 full-time employees at the end of 1943 to 101 at the end of 1944, 201 at the end of 1945, and 334 at the end of 1946, including 34 members of the Armys Special Engineer Detachment.</p><br>
<h2>Locations</h2><br>
<p>Office space was initially found in the Monsanto offices at 1515 Nicholas Rd, which became known as Unit I. Unit II was the Monsanto Rocket Propellant works off Betty Lane near Ohio State Route 741. While it was administered by Monsanto, it was not used by the Dayton Project. The site handled explosives including ammonium nitrate and ammonium picrate, but no radioactive materials were handled there. Work at Unit II ceased in the fall of 1945. Consideration was given to using it in December 1946, but this proposal was rejected in favor of erecting a Quonset hut at Unit III.</p><br>
<p>A laboratory site was found at 1601 W. First Street that had originally been constructed to house the Bonebrake Seminary. It was a three-story brick building built in 1879, and owned by the Dayton Board of Education, which used it as a warehouse. Monsanto leased the site on 15 October 1943, and began converting it into a laboratory known as Unit III. The building was in poor shape when the Dayton Project took it over, with many broken windows, and the staircase between the second and third floors was missing. New heating and lighting were installed, windows were replaced, new flooring was laid, and some rooms were re-plastered. A pair of guard houses known as buildings J and K were added, as was a chemical storage shed known as building F, and a wire fence. Laboratory activities were transferred there from Unit I on 25 September. Initially only the bottom two floors were occupied, providing 6,000 ft&sup2; of laboratory space. Later, the third floor was taken over as well, providing another 3,000 ft&sup2;. In May 1945, five additional temporary buildings were constructed on land leased from the Board of Education that housed offices, a cafeteria, locker rooms, a physics laboratory and a laundry. A new guardhouse was also built. To this was added two portable buildings in 1946.</p><br>
<p>By 1944, space was running short, and Monsanto began negotiations to acquire the Runnymede Playhouse in the wealthy residential Dayton suburb of Oakwood. Built in 1927, the Playhouse was a leisure facility that included an outdoor swimming pool, a ballroom, a squash court, a tennis court with a cork floor and a stage for community theater. It had showers with Italian marble and a -story garage. The estate was owned by the Talbott Realty Company, which was controlled by Thomass wifes family. The Talbotts were among the heirs of the Delco company, which was by then a part of General Motors. The Oakwood City Council wanted the Playhouse as a community center. Thomas appeared before the council and assured them that it would not be damaged, although he could not disclose what he was intending to use it for. When Talbott Realty proved reluctant to sell, the United States Army Corps of Engineers condemned the property, which became Unit IV on 15 February 1944. A lease was signed on 10 March 1944, under which the Talbott Realty was paid $4,266.72 per annum for the property. The lease was initially up to 30 June 1944, but was then extended annually until 30 June 1949. The lease specified that the property would be returned in its original condition. Talbott Realty were told that the property would be used to produce training films.</p><br>
<p>Remodeling began on 17 March 1944. The tennis courts were subdivided into multiple rooms. The ceiling was lowered, and heating, air conditioning and air filtration systems were added. One of the greenhouses was converted into a loading dock. The property was enclosed in a barbed wire fence that was floodlit by night, and patrolled around the clock by armed guards; there were 43 guards at Units III and IV. The Production Group began moving in on 1 June. Three guard houses were added, along with a wire fence. Changes to the site were minimized in order to make it easier to restore later. Because it was located in a residential area, efforts were also made to minimize noise and other disruptions.</p><br>
<p>In May 1945, Monsanto rented three floors of a warehouse at 601 East Third Street from General Electric. Initially it was used to receive and store equipment used by the Project. Later the fourth floor was used as office space, and a laboratory was established on the fifth floor where studies were carried out on the effects of polonium on laboratory animals. Analysis of bioassay samples was carried out there to minimize the danger of polonium contamination of the samples.</p><br>
<h2>Research</h2><br>
<p>Few people had seen polonium before. It was a silvery metal. In a dark room, it gave off an eerie, purple glow. Polonium occurs naturally in various ores, and the lead dioxide residues from the refinery in Port Hope, Ontario, left over after the removal of uranium and radium, were estimated to contain 0.2 to 0.3 mg of polonium per metric ton. A curie of polonium weighs about 0.2 mg. Port Hope was already under contract from the Manhattan Project for the supply and refining of uranium ore. The first 7,250 lb of radioactive lead dioxide was delivered to the Dayton Project on 10 November 1943. The first 500 lb batch was processed by 8 December, which made 30 &deg;C of polonium available for experiments a week later.</p><br>
<p>Three processes were investigated for extracting the polonium from the ore. J. H. Dillon of the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company had patented a process in which the lead oxide was dissolved in hydrochloric acid:</p><br>
<p>The polonium could then be deposited on copper or nickel sheets. This required large-scale glass-lined equipment not available in Dayton, but available at the Monsanto B plant in Monsanto, Illinois. After small-scale tests at Unit III revealed that the process was practical, some three tons of lead dioxide were sent to the B plant, and 2.50 &deg;C were recovered. Getting the polonium off the copper and nickel sheets proved more problematic.</p><br>
<p>A second method attempted was a kiln process. The idea was to simply roast the lead dioxide and vaporize the polonium. The problem was that lead dioxide slagged at 700 &deg;C, which was too low for the process to work. So lead orthophosphate was tried, which slagged at 900 &deg;C. This was made by mixing the lead dioxide with phosphoric acid. Experiments showed that the polonium vaporized well when the lead orthophosphate was heated to 750 &deg;C for four hours. Unfortunately, the process then ran into problems with dust and other foreign matter, and with contamination of the personnel and equipment involved.</p><br>
<p>The third method involved dissolving the lead dioxide in a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide:</p><br>
<p>This proved to be the best way to separate the polonium from the lead dioxide, although there were problems with the precipitation of various contaminants, including iron and aluminum. Although about 35 ST of lead dioxide were treated with nitric acid, and about 40 &deg;C of polonium were produced, the process did not proceed beyond the pilot stage because a better source of polonium became available. The lead dioxide was not purchased by the Manhattan Project, and early in the war had been acquired by the Canadian government. In June 1945, the lead was precipitated as a lead carbonate slurry, and shipped to the Manhattan District&#39;s Madison Square area to be dried and returned to Canada.</p><br>
<h2>Production</h2><br>
<p>Polonium could also be produced by neutron irradiation of bismuth. In 1943 the only polonium produced in this manner was in cyclotrons, but the Manhattan Project&#39;s development of nuclear reactors offered the prospect of producing large amounts of polonium in this manner:</p><br>
<p>A metric ton of bismuth irradiated in the Manhattan Projects X-10 Graphite Reactor at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, contained 32 to 83 Ci of polonium, a vast improvement over the yields from Port Hopes lead dioxide. Irradiated bismuth came from Clinton in the form of 12 by bricks that weighed about 58 lb. They were shipped to Dayton by rail in wooden boxes, which were stored in a tile-lined cavity in the floor at Unit IV.</p><br>
<p>These procedures were adequate because the quantity of polonium in the bismuth was still fairly low, but starting in June 1945, the Dayton Project began receiving bismuth irradiated in the more powerful reactors at the Hanford Site in Washington, which now became the major source of supply. Even at Clinton, unprotected bismuth proved problematic when a brick broke apart and chips fell into containers of uranium slugs, and had to be hazardously separated by hand by project personnel. Bismuth slugs irradiated in the reactors at Hanford were therefore canned in aluminium. The canned slugs were 1.5 in in diameter, and 4 or long. The problem was that the aluminium contained impurities such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, tin, zinc, silicon, titanium, nickel, magnesium, chromium, vanadium, bismuth and gallium, and when irradiated, these could form radioactive isotopes. Most were of little concern for the Dayton Project, as they had short half-lives, and would become harmless during the slugs&#39; cooling off period in water at Hanford; but iron could form iron-59, which had a half-life of 45 days, and produced gamma radiation. The slugs were therefore shipped in casks, each of which contained several tubes which held the slugs. The spaces between the tubs was filled with lead. At Dayton, the slugs were stored in a lead-lined safe with doors on both sides containing tubes. They were also stored underwater on racks, and could be removed with tongs. A periscope allowed the identification markings on the slugs to be checked without removing them from the pool.</p><br>
<p>By the end of 1946 Hanford was shipping material that contained up to 13,200 &deg;C per metric ton of bismuth. Bismuth was purchased from the American Smelting and Refining Company of the highest purity that it could produce. It was sent to Hanford, where it was canned, and placed inside a reactor for 100 days. The irradiated slugs were then shipped by road to Unit IV, where they were bathed in hydrochloric acid, which dissolved the aluminum. This formed an aluminum chloride solution that was disposed of, as it was highly radioactive due to the iron impurities in the aluminum. The bismuth slugs were then dissolved in aqua regia. This was too weak for electroplating the polonium, so the nitric acid was removed, and then the polonium deposited on bismuth by adding powdered bismuth. This resulted in a 100–1 concentration. This could then be repeated by dissolving in aqua regia again to achieve a 1000–1 concentration. This was again dissolved, and the polonium electroplated on platinum foils. The main problem with the process was that it required glass-lined containers due to the aqua regia, and mechanisms for safe handling of the radioactive material. The Dayton Project explored alternative purification methods that were found to be workable, but less efficient or safe.</p><br>
<p>The first consignment of polonium left for Los Alamos on 15 March 1944 in a lead-lined suitcase carried by a military courier. Regular shipments were made thereafter. Initiator testing at Los Alamos required more polonium than anticipated, and in December 1944, Oppenheimer was forced to ask Thomas if he could ship 20 &deg;C per month. The Dayton Project was able to do so. In February 1945, Thomas agreed to increase shipments to 100 &deg;C per month by June, and 500 per month by December.</p><br>
<p>The total cost of the Dayton Project up to the end of 1946 was $3,666,507 ($ in today&#39;s dollars).</p><br>
<h2>Health and safety</h2><br>
<p>Dayton Project employees were not allowed to eat or smoke in processing areas, and had to scrub their hands before leaving these areas. The chemists wore protective gear, with surgical, cloth and rubber gloves worn in three layers. When leaving for lunch or at the end of the shift, they had to wash their hands with dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute Clorox, and soap. The radioactive residue on their hands was measured with a special Geiger counter designed for the purpose by physicist John J. Sopka. No more than one thousand counts per minute per hand was permissible. They had to shower at the end of each day&#39;s work, and were subjected to weekly urine tests. Employees with elevated levels of polonium were not allowed in the processing areas. Working with polonium without spreading contamination proved to be almost impossible. Fortunately, it is not a bone seeker like radium or plutonium, and is thus readily excreted in urine. Detection methods had already been developed, making it easy to track. The employee at Unit IV with the highest levels of polonium in her urine had contaminated her hair, and often held bobby pins in her mouth.</p><br>
<h2>Espionage</h2><br>
<p>George Koval was drafted into the United States Army in 1943, and was inducted into the Manhattan Project&#39;s Special Engineer Detachment. He was initially assigned to the Clinton Engineer Works, where his job as a health physics officer gave him access to much of the site. He began passing secrets relating to the production of polonium at Oak Ridge to the Soviet Union through his GRU (Soviet military intelligence) handler code-named "Clyde". In 1945 Koval was transferred to Dayton. Again, his job as a health physics officer gave him wide access to the secret installation. The fact that polonium was used as an initiator remained classified until the 1960s.</p><br>
<h2>Initiators</h2><br>
<p>After Leonard I. Schiff calculated that an initiator might improve the efficiency of a gun-type fission weapon, Oppenheimer gave approval on 15 March 1945 for initiators to be included in the Little Boy design. The initiators were tested to ensure they were rugged enough to handle being transported in an airplane and being accidentally dropped. Eventually, about forty initiators were dispatched to Tinian, where four were inserted into the bomb that was used in the bombing of Hiroshima.</p><br>
<p>The initiator used in the implosion design of the Fat Man bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki was code-named "urchin". In order to increase the efficiency of the explosion, the initiator had to emit a large number of neutrons in a few microseconds while the plutonium core was fully compressed. At the heart of the urchin was a solid beryllium sphere 0.4 cm in diameter. This was gold-plated and coated with 20 &deg;C of polonium. The gold kept the polonium&#39;s alpha particles from striking the beryllium. This fitted inside two beryllium hemispheres with 15 parallel grooves cut into the inner surface. These grooves converted the shock wave of the implosion into jets that shattered the spheres and caused the beryllium and polonium to mix and emit neutrons. The hemispheres were nickel-plated and the outer surface was coated in gold and 30 &deg;C of polonium. The 2.0 cm initiator, which was hot to the touch, fitted neatly inside the 0.8 in hole in the center of the plutonium pit.</p><br>
<h2>Mound Laboratories</h2><br>
<p>By 1945, the Dayton Project had assumed such importance that the Manhattan Project decided to make it into a permanent facility. The original intention was to move operations to Oak Ridge, but it was decided that a site near Dayton was preferable. Few of the scientific and technical staff wanted to move to Tennessee, and there were concerns about the dangers of polonium contamination at a plutonium processing site. A search for a suitable site began in early 1946, and one was found in Miamisburg, about 12 mi from Dayton. The 178 acre site was next to a state park containing a large prehistoric Indian burial mound, which ultimately gave the Mound Laboratories its name. It was initially known as Unit V. Monsanto began construction in May 1946, using the Detroit firm of Giffels and Vallet as architects, while the plant was built by the Maxon Construction of Dayton. The design called for an underground complex that could withstand a direct hit from a 2,000 lb bomb, with protection against biological and chemical weapons, at a cost of $17,900,000.</p><br>
<p>Responsibility for nuclear weapons production was transferred from the Manhattan Project to the Atomic Energy Commission in 1947, but work continued on the Mound Laboratories. The first building was completed in May 1948, and polonium processing commenced at the Mound Laboratories in February 1949. Altogether, 14 major buildings were constructed with a total floor space of 366,000 ft2 at a cost of $25.5 million. Due to fear of attack or sabotage, the former Scioto Laboratory Complex in Marion, Ohio, was acquired by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948. It was maintained as a cold standby site until it was no longer needed in 1953.</p><br>
<h2>Site cleanup</h2><br>
<p>Unit I continued to be used by Monsanto as an administrative facility until 1988, when it was demolished. The land was sold to Quality Chemicals in 1992, and then to DuPont in 2002. Unit III, the former Bonebrake Theological Seminary, was decontaminated in 1950 and returned to the Dayton Board of Education. The original seminary building was subsequently demolished, but several structures remain from the Dayton Project. The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 10 May 2006. Although the lease on Unit IV, the former Runnymede Playhouse, specified that it was to be returned, it was deemed to be too contaminated. The building was demolished in February 1950. The cobblestones in the driveway were removed and taken away, along with 7 ft of earth from under the house. The excavation was filled in, and the site was returned to the Talbott family, who were paid $138,750 in compensation., all that remains of the original playhouse is a brass doorknob and part of the greenhouse roof, which are part of the collection of the Mound Science and Energy Museum. Private residences now occupy the site. The Dayton Warehouse was decontaminated in 1950 and returned to its owners. The Mound Laboratories continued to produce polonium initiators until 1969. Polonium continued to be produced there for commercial sales and use in satellites until 1972. The laboratories were decommissioned in 1993, and the area was decontaminated., it houses the Mound Advanced Technology Center.</p><br>
<p>In 1996, the Department of Energy, which had succeeded the Atomic Energy Commission, decided that since the Dayton sites already had been decontaminated, they did not warrant inclusion in the Army Corps of Engineers&#39; Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP). The local community in Dayton was concerned that the cleanup did not meet 21st-century environmental standards. Therefore, the state of Ohio asked the United States Congress to have the Army Corps of Engineers conduct a review. This was carried out in 2004 and 2005. The review concluded that no radioactive contaminants were found that would warrant inclusion in FUSRAP.</p><br>
<p>The Edmonston House is a historic stone home located on NY 94 in the Vails Gate section of the Town of New Windsor in Orange County, New York. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1979.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>James and Margaret Smith Edmonston came from County Tipperary, Ireland in 1720. After staying seven years in Plymouth, Massachusetts they moved to New Windsor and purchased 200 acres just west of Vails Gate from the widow Ingoldsby. The Ingoldsby land was part of the early patent held by Capt. John Evans. For a time Edmonstons log cabin was the only house between New Windsor and what would later become Washingtonville.</p><br>
<p>The family lived in the log cabin until 1755 when the first 2-story stone house was built, followed soon after with a 2-story stone addition. Built in 1755 by Edmonston, it is said that the house was used as a headquarters during the last years of the Revolutionary War by generals Horatio Gates and Arthur St. Clair and also served as the medical staff headquarters for the nearby encampment of the Continental Army. However historian Edward Manning Ruttenbur asserts that the medical staff was headquartered at the James Clinton house in New Windsor village, while the officers were billeted in a building across the road from the Edmonston house.</p><br>
<p>In the 1940s the house suffered a serious fire in the east wing.</p><br>
<p>Today, the house is managed by the National Temple Hill Association, along with the nearby Last Encampment, a town-owned portion of the Cantonment. It is open as a museum from 2-5 p.m. Sundays July through September.</p><br>
<p>The Alfred Caldwell Lily Pool, also known as Lincoln Park Lily Pool, is an important example of Prairie School landscape architecture designed by Alfred Caldwell and located at 125 W. Fullerton Parkway  in Lincoln Park, Chicago, Illinois. Developed in 1936-38, it is one of Caldwell&#39;s most fully realized designs. It was designated a Chicago Landmark on November 6, 2002. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and as a National Historic Landmark on February 17, 2006.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>A Victorian-style artificially heated lily pool had originally been built in 1889 at the behest of Lincoln Park Commission Superintendent John Pettigrew to cultivate tropical water lilies. The pool area is located just north of Lincoln Park Zoo and next to the Lincoln Park Conservatory.</p><br>
<h3>Features</h3><br>
<h3>The Rookery</h3><br>
<p>In the early 1950s, under Zoo Director Marlin Perkins, the pool was transformed into a water exhibit featuring exotic birds and water fowl and came to be known as The Rookery. Overgrazing by zoo birds had a devastating effect on the lily pond. A lack of landscaping management allowed invasive plants and "weed" trees to take over the understory. Combined with heavy human foot traffic, uncontrolled erosion, the introduction of plants materials that were invasive to the existing lilies, and inappropriate repairs (eroded areas covered with loose stones) this resulted in what Caldwell called (in 1990) "a dead world".</p><br>
<h3>Renovation</h3><br>
<p>From 1998 to 2002, the 2.7 acre Lily Pool underwent a major restoration by the Chicago Park District and the Lincoln Park Conservancy.</p><br>
<p>The Friends of Lincoln Park (now called The Lincoln Park Conservancy) raised $1.2 million toward the restoration of the lily pools. A similar sum was obtained from a grant from the USDA Forest Service. Wolff Landscape Architecture was hired to complete the project.</p><br>
<p>Five focus groups were conducted to develop a consensus plan for restoration of the site</p><br>
<p>experts in historic preservation,</p><br>
<p>bird watchers and ecologists,</p><br>
<p>Individuals knowledgeable about Lincoln Park and active in its planning and management,</p><br>
<p>activists and experts on the subject of accessibility,</p><br>
<p>members of the general public.</p><br>
<p>The Chicago Park District and the Lincoln Park Conservancy manage a docent program at the Caldwell Lily Pool.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Lily Pool&#39;s main gate is on the south side of Fullerton Parkway between Stockton and Cannon Drives (125 W Fullerton Parkway).</p><br>
<p>The Lily Pool is open seasonally from mid-April to mid-November from 7:30 a.m. to the earlier of dusk or 7:30 p.m. It is maintained by the Chicago Park District and Lincoln Park Conservancy.</p><br>
<p>Free docent tours are available to the public on Fridays, Saturdays or Sundays from the Spring through Fall.</p><br>
<p>20070516 Alfred Caldwell Lily Pool.jpgMay 2007</p><br>
<p>Alfred Caldwell Lily Pool Fall 2010.JPGOctober 2010</p><br>
<p>Alfred Caldwell Lily Pool October.JPGPool in Fall 2010</p><br>
<p>The Isidore H. Heller House is a house located at 5132 South Woodlawn Avenue in the Hyde Park community area of Chicago in Cook County, Illinois, United States. The house was designed by American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. The design is credited as one of the turning points in Wright&#39;s shift to geometric, Prairie School architecture, which is defined by horizontal lines, flat or hipped roofs with broad overhanging eaves, windows grouped in horizontal bands, and an integration with the landscape, which is meant to evoke native Prairie surroundings.</p><br>
<p>The work demonstrates Wrights shift away from emulating the style of his mentor, Louis Sullivan. Richard Bock, a Wright collaborator and sculptor, provided some of the ornamentation, including a plaster frieze. The ownership history of this building demonstrates the propertys evolution and development in the framework of surrounding Hyde Park buildings, and the buildings location in the current community—near other Prairie School architecture—includes this building into the overall body of Wrights work. The Heller House was designated a Chicago Landmark on September 15, 1971, and added to the National Register of Historic Places on March 16, 1972. On August 18, 2004, the USA Department of the Interior designated the house a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Little is known about Isidore H. Heller and his family, but what is known has been compiled through personal interviews as well as census and county records. Heller was born in Austria in 1847, and his wife, Ida, was born in Wisconsin in 1857. In America, Heller worked at Wolf, Sayer, and Heller: Packers and Butcher&#39;s Supplies, which was located on Fulton Street, Chicago, on the northwest side of the city. Heller and Ida were later married and had three children, including Walter Heller, a Chicago investment banker.</p><br>
<p>Heller purchased land in the Hyde Park area of Chicago from Jonas Hamburger on January 2, 1895, and commissioned Frank Lloyd Wright to design the house in 1896. A building permit was issued on July 13, 1897, at a cost of $7.70, and named William Adams as the builder. The building was constructed on the 50 by lot in 1897. The total cost of the work is estimated at $12,500. In 1906, the lot was enlarged when Heller purchased an additional 25 ft to the north of his original plot.</p><br>
<p>The Hellers lived in the house for about 16 years, until the death of Ida Heller on October 11, 1909. The house was sold to Francis Bickett on June 18, 1913, as records indicate that by 1915, Heller had been living in Silver Lake for some years.</p><br>
<p>In 1948, George Watson purchased the home from Fox and owned it for the next 25 years, becoming the owner with the longest tenure. Lewis Bradford then bought the house in 1972, and had the exterior sandblasted. In 1977, Victor and Danielle Barcilon bought the house. They occupied it until 1987, when it was sold to David and Catherine Epstein, who sold the home to Serafino Garella and Judith Bromley, in 1995. They restored a bathroom and restored the master bedroom&#39;s fireplace. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark in the same year. The house was then sold in 2004 again to the Goldstein family.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>When Wright designed the Heller House in 1896, it marked his move away from styles that were popular into an era of geometric and highly modern designs. Wrights design exhibits the influence of Wrights mentor, Louis Sullivan, and demonstrates Wrights move towards Prairie School homes which would epitomize much of his early work. Sullivans influence can also be seen in the floral pattern of the Richard Bock plaster frieze on the home&#39;s third floor, although during the 1970s, restoration work—which utilized sandblasting—destroyed much of the detail on the frieze.</p><br>
<p>The 26 by rectangular house stands 41 ft high and was built with Indiana Limestone, and yellow Roman brick, which emphasizes the geometric and horizontal nature of the home&#39;s exterior. The south side entrance was adorned with Classical detailing and the cantilevered entry lintel, which sits on two ornately detailed stone columns, was decorated with quatrefoils (Four leaves) which were set on a stone panel. The front room is not split by a corridor or side hall, making it more spacious.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>The Heller House was Wright&#39;s first work in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago, an area that was influenced by the Gothic Revival work of Henry Ives Cobb.</p><br>
<p>Many of the Hyde Park houses of Chicago are surrounded by elaborate gardens, and have been the subject of an ongoing neighborhood revitalization since the late 1950s. The design of the Heller House was unlike any other home in Chicago at the time it was built and was called Wright&#39;s most "outrageous" design.</p><br>
<p>The Printing House Row District is a National Historic Landmark District encompassing four architecturally important buildings on South Dearborn Street, between Jackson Boulevard  and Ida B. Wells Drive , in the Loop community area of Chicago, Illinois. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as South Dearborn Street – Printing House Row Historic District and listed as a National Historic Landmark as South Dearborn Street – Printing House Row North Historic District on January 7, 1976. The district includes the Monadnock Building, the Manhattan Building, the Fisher Building, and the Old Colony Building.</p><br>
<p>The district overlaps with the Printers Row neighborhood and with the South Loop Printing House District. It is adjacent to and just north of a similarly designated Printing House Row District that spans the 500 through 800 blocks of South Dearborn, South Federal and South Plymouth streets and that was declared a Chicago Landmark on May 9, 1996.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Printing House Row District includes four buildings that present facades onto South Dearborn Street, between West Jackson Boulevard and West Ida B. Wells Drive. At the northern end stands the Monadnock Building, occupying the entire block of South Dearborn and South Federal between Jackson and Van Buren. Opposite the southern portion of the Monadnock stands the Fisher Building, fronting on South Dearborn and Van Buren. Across Van Buren on the east side of South Dearborn is the Old Colony Building, with the Manhattan Building to its south.</p><br>
<p>Each of these buildings is significant for its architecture and/or for advances in skyscraper construction methods in the 1880s and 1890s. The Manhattan Building, built in 1889–91 to a design by William Le Baron Jenney, was the first skyscraper supported entirely by an internal metal skeleton, and was the tallest building in the world at its completion. The Old Colony Building, built in 1893–94 to a design by Holabird & Roche, demonstrated a means to build skyscrapers on narrow lots, yet provided sufficient strength to its floors to withstand the operational stresses of printing equipment. The Fisher Building, built in 1895–96 to a design by Daniel H. Burnham, is one of the first buildings to use curtain wall construction. Lastly, the Monadnock, built in two stages, one designed by Burnham & Root and the other by Holabird & Roche, is one of the largest commercial buildings with load-bearing masonry walls ever built.</p><br>
<p>The Argentine Branch Library, sometimes known as the Argentine Carnegie Library is a building located at 2800 Metropolitan Avenue in the Argentine neighborhood of Kansas City, Kansas that formerly served as a branch of the Kansas City, Kansas Public Library .</p><br>
<p>It was designed by Rose and Peterson (Architects). It was deemed as one of the KCK&#39;s historic landmarks on March 28, 1985. It was placed in the Register of Historic Kansas Places on November 23, 1985, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places on April 30, 1986.</p><br>
<p>The Kansas City, Kansas Public Library has moved the collections and staff from Argentine to the new SOUTH BRANCH, at 3104 Strong Ave., a few blocks to the west and north, which opened Sep 26, 2012. The library has turned over the building to the Kansas City, Kansas USD 500.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building was built during 1916–1917. It is a one-story brick building on a raised limestone block foundation, with a flat roof. It has a Classical Revival-style pavilion at the main entrance. The building has 7,500 ft&sup2; of space. The library itself was first established in a storefront in 1911 and moved into the Carnegie building in 1917. It has 7,000 ft&sup2; of space.</p><br>
<p>By 1998 it was the sole remaining Carnegie library in the city. By 2012 the library had 22 computers.</p><br>
<p>In 2012 the current South Branch opened, with a new name chosen to reflect it serving the entire area of the city. The previous Argentine Library was decommissioned due to difficulties in accommodating disabled people and in rewiring the facility. The Kansas City School District helped pay for the new library and took possession of the old library.</p><br>
<p>Fire Station No. 9 was located at 2 South 14th Street in Kansas City, Kansas. Designed by William E. Harris, it was declared a Kansas City, Kansas Historic Landmark on June 16, 1983. The fire station was placed on the Register of Historic Kansas Places on July 3, 1979, and the National Register of Historic Places on September 5, 1985. It has also been known as the Prescott Neighborhood Center. The building is currently owned and occupied by Community Housing of Wyandotte County. The new Fire Station No. 9 is located at 1100 Central Ave. in Kansas City, Kansas.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Fire Station No. 9 was completed in 1911 and is an excellent example of the "free eclecticism" of early 20th century design. It was built at a time when Kansas City was experiencing a large economic boom and was one of many civic improvements the city implemented between 1910 and 1927. The station&#39;s service area was bounded on the north by Minnesota Ave, on the south by Muncie Bvld, on the east by 10th St, and on the west by 37th St. Also inside this boundary was Bethany Hospital which was completed the same year as Fire Station No. 9.</p><br>
<p>Little is known about the architect, William E. Harris. However, he also designed Fire Station No.8 which had an identical floor plan to No. 9, but with differences in the exterior. In 1984, Fire Station No. 8 had to be demolished due to extensive damage related to arson.</p><br>
<p>Records indicated that when Fire Station No. 9 opened in 1911, it utilized a Anderson combination chemical and hose wagon. This wagon would have been pulled by horses and manned by a crew of four. There are no remaining physical traces of this type fire wagon still in the building.</p><br>
<p>In 1950, the front doors of the station were widened and elevated in order to accommodate larger fire engines and the north and west doors were filled in. However, the fire station would cease operations in 1967 when the new Fire Station No. 9 took over. The building was given to city painters and carpenters who used it for storage until the city agreed to convert it to a neighborhood community center in 1975-76. The exterior was remodeled in 1977 and the north and west doors were reopened. Interior remodeling took place the following year.</p><br>
<h2>Appearance</h2><br>
<p>It has at least two terra cotta gargoyles depicting dwarf-like firemen projecting from corners.</p><br>
<p>The Huron Indian Cemetery in Kansas City, Kansas, also known as Huron Park Cemetery, is now formally known as the Wyandot National Burying Ground. It was established, soon after the Wyandot  had arrived following removal from Ohio. The tribe settled in the area for years, with many in 1855 accepting allotment of lands in Kansas in severalty. The majority of the Wyandot removed to Oklahoma in 1867, where they maintained tribal institutions and communal property. As a federally recognized tribe, they had legal control over the communal property of Huron Cemetery. For more than 100 years, the property has been controversial between the federally recognized Wyandotte Nation, based in Oklahoma, which wanted to sell it for redevelopment, and the much smaller, unrecognized Wyandot Nation of Kansas, which wanted to preserve the burying ground.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery is located at North 7th Street Trafficway and Minnesota Avenue in Kansas City. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 3, 1971, and has been formally renamed the Wyandot National Burying Ground. It is in the Kansas City, Kansas Historic District. It was placed on the Register of Historic Kansas Places on July 1, 1977.</p><br>
<p>In the early 20th century, Lyda Conley and her two sisters in Kansas City, Kansas led a years-long battle to preserve the cemetery against forces wanting to develop it. In 1916 the cemetery gained some protection as a national park under legislation supported by Kansas Senator Charles Curtis. It continued to be subject to development pressure, with new proposals coming up about every decade. Passage of the 1990 Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act provided new protections, as lineal descendants of those interred must be consulted and they have a voice in disposition of cemeteries and gravesites. Lineal descendants among the Wyandot Nation of Kansas have strongly supported continued preservation of the cemetery in its original use.</p><br>
<p>In 1998, the Wyandotte Nation and Wyandot Nation of Kansas signed an agreement to use the Huron Cemetery only for religious, cultural or other activities compatible with use of the site as a burial ground. In December 2016 the cemetery was named as a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History of Wyandot tribe in Kansas</h2><br>
<p>The Wyandot migration from Ohio to Missouri and Kansas occurred from July 28-31, 1843, through the Great Flood of 1844. They began arriving at the confluence of the Missouri River and Kaw River and then settled in the Westport area until the Delaware sold them thirty-six sections and gave them three sections in memory of friendship in what is now Wyandotte County. They were living in a low-lying area and suffered epidemic illness. Survivors buried the dead in land on a ridge overlooking the Missouri River, which became known as the Huron Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Later that year, the United States granted land in Kansas to the Wyandot that included the ridge. They continued to use it as a cemetery.</p><br>
<p>In 1855, the government accepted many of the Wyandot as United States citizens when they accepted allotments of communal land by household. Tribal government was dissolved. The Huron Cemetery remained part of communal holdings and was used by members in Kansas City. Four years later, the Town of Wyandot was incorporated, with the Huron Cemetery within its boundaries. This community later was annexed by Kansas City, Kansas in Wyandotte County.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-1850s, the Wyandot separately approved the sale of some of their land for the founding of the Quindaro Townsite. The town was founded as a free port-of-entry on the Missouri River in late 1856 by abolitionists in the Kansas territory. It was named after the Wyandot wife of one of the founders. Construction of buildings in the commercial section along the river began in 1857 and proceeded rapidly, as settlers were arriving from New England to help Kansas become a free state by being there to vote on its status. More residential areas were developed on the ridge above the river.</p><br>
<p>At Quindaro and on their own land, the Wyandot provided an important refuge for slaves escaping on the Underground Railroad. Some of the natives aided slaves who had escaped across the river from Missouri, and helped them travel further north to freedom.</p><br>
<p>After the American Civil War, in 1867 the majority of members who had not become citizens (or who said they wanted to be part of the tribe) was removed again, this time to 20,000 acre in Oklahoma. Those members remaining in Kansas were considered "absentee" or "citizen class". Because the Oklahoma nation retained tribal institutions, its leaders retained legal authority over the communal land of the Huron Indian Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>Later, the Quindaro townsite was annexed by Kansas City, Kansas. By the 1890s, the Huron Indian Cemetery on the ridge was considered prime land in the expanding city. Wanting to purchase the cemetery land, developers negotiated with its legal owners, leaders of the Wyandotte Nation in Indian Territory (which became Oklahoma). In 1906, the Wyandotte through Congress instructed the United States Secretary of the Interior to sell the land. Nearby had been built the Carnegie Library and the Brund Hotel, and the Scottish Rites Masonic Temple was under reconstruction following a fire. Sale proceeds went to the Wyandotte Nation, based in Oklahoma. Indian remains from the Huron Cemetery were to be moved to the Quindaro Cemetery nearby in Kansas City.</p><br>
<p>Over the years as Kansas City developed, the cemetery repeatedly was the center of controversy between preservation interests versus development interests. The struggle has also been between the unrecognized Wyandot Nation of Kansas and the federally recognized Wyandotte Nation. Since the late 19th century, the latter group was the only one with legal authority over the site. Lyda Conley and her two sisters of Kansas City launched a public relations and legal defense to prevent the sale. They were joined by other local Wyandot descendants, as well as by women&#39;s clubs and similar associations. In the course of this, in 1909 Lyda Conley became the first Native American woman attorney to be admitted to the bar of the US Supreme Court, as she carried the case there. Though sympathetic, the Court did not support her attempt to prevent the sale of land.</p><br>
<p>In 1916, with the aid of Kansas Senator Charles Curtis, a multi-racial member of the Kaw tribe and future Vice President of the United States, Congress passed legislation to protect the Huron Indian Cemetery as a park. The federal government entered into an agreement with Kansas City for its maintenance.</p><br>
<p>The city and the Wyandotte Nation have continued to consider development on the site that would require removal of Wyandot remains. The Wyandot Nation of Kansas incorporated as a nonprofit in 1959. It has been seeking federal recognition in recent years and strongly supports maintenance of the cemetery as an historic site.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery&#39;s prime location continues to bring development interest. In recognition of its historic importance, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 3, 1971. It has been formally renamed the Wyandot National Burying Ground.</p><br>
<p>Included within the Kansas City, Kansas Historic District, the cemetery was also listed on the Register of Historic Kansas Places on July 1, 1977. In 1978–1979, the city installed new grave markers.</p><br>
<h2>Modern</h2><br>
<p>Scholars believe that there are more than 400 and up to 800 graves, few marked. Burials were still being made in the late 20th century.</p><br>
<p>In 1991, the Kansas City government installed more than 70 new grave markers in consultation with the tribe and archaeologists, to replace some that had been put in during the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>In 1994, the chief of the Wyandotte Nation evaluated the Huron Park Cemetery as a possible location of a gaming casino, a major revenue generator for Native American tribes. Representatives of the Wyandot Nation of Kansas protested to their Congressional delegation. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) noted that no action could occur without substantial consultation with various agencies and, most importantly, consent from the lineal descendants of individuals interred at the Huron Park Cemetery, as required in the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990.</p><br>
<p>In 1998, after more than 100 years of disagreement, finally the Wyandotte Nation and Wyandot Nation of Kansas signed an agreement to use the Huron Cemetery only for religious, cultural, or other compatible sacred activities. This states that the Oklahoma nation would not oppose the Wyandot Nation of Kansas&#39;s attempt to gain federal recognition. That tribe is currently recognized by the state. In 2016, the cemetery was designated a National Historic Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>Silas Armstrong (1810–1865), merchant and politician; served as chief of the Wyandotte Nation from 1858 to his death in 1865</p><br>
<p>Lyda Conley (–1946), lawyer; protected the sale of Huron Cemetery</p><br>
<p>Hiram Northup (1818–1893), banker and businessman; worked closely with Wyandot people</p><br>
<p>The Ida B. Wells-Barnett House was the residence of civil rights advocate Ida B. Wells  and her husband Ferdinand Lee Barnett from 1919 to 1930. It is located at 3624 S. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Drive in the Bronzeville section of the Douglas community area on the South Side of Chicago, Illinois. It was designated a Chicago Landmark on October 2, 1995. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places and as a National Historic Landmark on May 30, 1974.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Ida B. Wells-Barnett House is located on Chicagos South Side, on the west side of Martin Luther King Jr. Drive roughly midway between 35th and 37th streets. It is a three-story structure built out of ashlar granite in the Romanesque Revival style which was popular around 1890. The front facade is divided into a large right bay, a smaller left bay, and an angled left corner section, from which a turreted bay projects on the second and third levels. The main entrance is deeply recessed behind a segmented arch in the right bay; the other bays have windows set in round-arch openings. The right bay is topped by a gabled wall dormer with a pair of round-arch windows at its center. The interiors original layout had a side hall plan, with public rooms on the ground floor, bedrooms on the second, and a ballroom on the third. The building has been subdivided into apartments.</p><br>
<p>The house was built about 1889–90 to a design by architect Joseph Thain. It was purchased in 1919 by writer and activist Ida B. Wells and her husband, attorney Ferdinand Lee Barnett, and served as the couple&#39;s home until 1929. Of three addresses they were known to have lived at in Chicago, this is the best preserved. Wells, born into slavery in Mississippi in 1862, was educated at Rust College and became a teacher. She was an outspoken advocate for African-American civil rights, and regularly wrote about the brutality of the Jim Crow south, particularly on the subject of lynching. In the early 1890s she met Barnett, a Chicago attorney also active in civil rights; they married in 1895. Wells continued her writing and activism, and was a founding organizer of the NAACP.</p><br>
<p>The Crescent Hill Branch Library, constructed in 1908 in Louisville, Kentucky, was one of the first of nine Carnegie-endowed libraries built in Louisville, and is a branch of the Louisville Free Public Library. The building has a Beaux-Arts architecture style created by the Thomas & Bohne architect firm. The west side of the library was added in 1961 and the entire library was renovated in 1988. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1981 for its architectural significance and the educational impact on the community up to 1924.</p><br>
<h2>Renovation</h2><br>
<p>In 1988 the library began its renovation process and didn&#39;t reopen to the public until March 24, 1994, with a gala reception. During the renovation progress, library materials were stored at the Masonic Home on Frankfort Avenue and remained available for use by the public.</p><br>
<h2>Public relations</h2><br>
<p>The library has a longstanding relationship with the community. Sallie T. Berryman, the second librarian, began in 1909 and stayed for 30 years. She started the first story hour, night classes, boys and girls clubs, a child health clinic, and two groups that would become the Crescent Hill Women&#39;s Club. In 1922 a memorial was created commemorating Crescent Hill residents that died in World War I.</p><br>
<p>The library also has public Wi-Fi available.</p><br>
<p>The Sands Ring Homestead Museum is a historic house located on Main Street in the Town of Cornwall, in Orange County, New York. It was built in 1760 by Nathaniel Sands for his cousin Comfort Sands. Comfort&#39;s wife, however, did not want to leave her home on Long Island, so Nathaniel and his family moved in. In 1777, Nathaniel gave the house as a wedding present to his son David and his bride Clementine Hallock. David, a member of the Society of Friends, opened the house to the Quaker community as a meetinghouse until the Quaker Meeting House located at 60 Quaker Avenue opened in 1790. His son David established a store on the site. It was one of the first meeting places of the Cornwall Quakers. Today it is used as museum featuring Colonial-era activities.</p><br>
<p>Note: This includes</p><br>
<p>It has been a Registered Historic Place since 1996.</p><br>
<p>Forestdale is a village and historic district in North Smithfield, Providence County, Rhode Island, United States, one-half mile from Slatersville, Rhode Island. The historic district runs east and west along Main Street and north on Maple Avenue. School Street is the primary road through the village, and the one-room schoolhouse for which the street is named still stands. The Branch River runs through the valley adjacent to the School Street. The Village Haven Restaurant and local VFW chapter are also located in the village.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The village was originally owned by the Forestdale Manufacturing Company, a textile mill, later purchased by John Slater & Co. The Mansfield & Lamb scythe-shop manufactured scythes and later tools in Forestdale starting in 1824, and during the American Civil War manufactured swords and sabres for Union Forces. The mills used water power from the Branch River to power their equipment.</p><br>
<p>The Swan&#39;s Landing Archeological Site is an archaeological site from the Early Archaic period in Harrison County, Indiana, United States. Located along the Ohio River, it has been extensively damaged by modern activity, but it is still one of the most important sites for its time period in North America. It has been designated a historic site because of its archaeological value.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Located along the Ohio River, the site is largely buried by as much as 6 m of alluvium deposited by the river. It sits at Mile 658 in the rivers floodplain, about 3.5 km north of the town of New Amsterdam, and about 6 km above the confluence of the Blue River. Measuring about 5 hectare in area, its name is taken from the areas former use by the Swan family as a landing for riverboats along the Ohio. Nearby terrain features include a dirt road at the sites southern end, a large pond just a stones throw to the south, and the mouth of Indian Creek about 1,800 m south of the site.</p><br>
<h2>Damage</h2><br>
<p>Local residents became aware of the site by the early 1960s, at which time collectors were finding projectile points on the beach; however, it was first published in 1982. Between these years, the site was greatly damaged by human activity: some intentionally, and some unintentionally. Realizing that large numbers of artifacts were buried under the soil, some individuals began to dig with shovels on the side of the alluvial deposits, while others brought high-pressure hoses to wash away the top of the deposits. By the time that professional archaeologists discovered the site in the early 1980s, extensive vandalism had removed large amounts of soil and large numbers of artifacts. Moreover, changes in 1974 to the management of the Cannelton Locks and Dam, downstream from the site, caused the water level to rise, eroding the riverbank rapidly. By the mid-1990s, the riverbank had eroded more than 20 m from its previous location.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>In the summer of 1986, an archaeological survey was conducted at the site to determine if the site were eligible to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places. This was done by the Glenn Black Laboratory of Archaeology at Indiana University with financing from the Indiana Department of Natural Resources.</p><br>
<p>Professional surveys in the 1980s revealed a long line of archaeological deposits that was strung out along the riverbank for at least 500 m. Types of artifacts found at the site include Kirk cluster projectile points from the Early Archaic period, various types of scrapers, hammerstones, large celts, bifaces, and many other kinds of stone tools. Most of these tools were composed of Wyandotte chert, a high-quality stone that is more plentiful in Harrison County and surrounding regions than anywhere else in the world. Charcoal was present at the site in abundance, along with multiple hearths; the lack of damage to the stones at the site has been taken as an indication that the inhabitants were capable of constructing wood fires with good aeration. Their fires were not composed exclusively of wood: evidence exists that they employed coal, oil shale, and perhaps manganese dioxide as fuel. Artifacts recovered through test excavations were subjected to radiocarbon dating, which produced a wide range of dates: because some artifacts were dated as much as eight thousand years before others, and because many dates were either too ancient or too recent for the Archaic period that produced the characteristic projectile points found at the site, it is plain that the results were flawed in some way.</p><br>
<h2>Findings</h2><br>
<p>The massive numbers of stone tools recovered at Swans Landing indicate that the site was employed as a factory for stone tools from nearby stone outcrops. Some tools were produced at the site, and many blanks were also produced there for reduction at other locations. Because virtually all stone tools found at the site are made of local Wyandotte chert, it seems that the people who frequented the site neither travelled afar nor traded stone with other peoples. Swans Landing appears to have been used by skilled craftsmen: the wide range of tools suggests that the workers were highly specialized. Multiple tribes may have frequented the site; one scholar has proposed that it functioned as a trading post between different peoples. With little evidence of daily life, the site may have been used typically by groups that camped there for short periods of time. The reason for the site&#39;s abandonment appears to have been that its users found nearby areas that were more appealing for their industrial purposes.</p><br>
<h2>Recognition</h2><br>
<p>In 1987, Swans Landing was listed on the National Register of Historic Places because of its archaeological significance. Other manufacturing and reduction sites from the Early Archaic period are known elsewhere in the country, such as the twin Houserville and Tudek Sites in central Pennsylvania, and the artifacts suggest that the people who worked at Swans Landing were similar to those who lived at the St. Albans Site in West Virginia and Icehouse Bottom in Tennessee. Regardless of its similarities to these sites, and despite extensive vandalism, the amount of information remaining at Swan&#39;s Landing makes it one of the leading Early Archaic sites throughout eastern North America.</p><br>
<p>In November 1945, Jackson Pollock and his wife Lee Krasner moved to what is now known as the Pollock-Krasner House and Studio in Springs in the town of East Hampton on Long Island, New York. The wood-frame house on 1.56 acre with a nearby barn is on Accobonac Creek.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Pollock and Krasner had visited friends nearby when they found this house for sale in 1945. The price was $5,000 and Peggy Guggenheim loaned them the $2,000 down payment in exchange for artwork.</p><br>
<p>At first Pollock used an upstairs bedroom as a studio. In 1946, after moving the barn to improve the view from the house, Pollock started using that building as his studio. Krasner began using the bedroom as her studio. Pollocks brother had given him a large collection of square Masonite baseball game boards, and in 1953, Pollock used them to cover the floor of the house and studio. After Pollocks death, Krasner started using the barn as her studio.</p><br>
<p>After Krasner died, the property was given to the Stony Brook Foundation which is administered by Stony Brook University. Conservators examined the house and studio. Underneath the Masonite squares, they discovered the original barn floor, covered in stray paint. The foundation schedules tours of the studio and house from May through October.</p><br>
<p>Part of the property was donated by Krasner to The Nature Conservancy in the 1970s. The surrounding Springs neighborhood is on the National Register of Historic Places. The house and studio was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1994.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The house and studio were used in the making of the biopic Pollock (2000), starring and directed by Ed Harris.</p><br>
<p>In addition, the studio was featured in Episode 2 of the BBC series The Code in 2011.</p><br>
<p>Shandy Hall is the name of a homestead museum located in Harpersfield, Ohio, owned and maintained by the Western Reserve Historical Society.</p><br>
<p>The original rooms of Shandy Hall were built in 1815 by Col. Robert Harper, a son of Alexander Harper, namesake of the township and the first permanent settler in that area.</p><br>
<p>Considered the oldest frame residence in this section of the state, Shandy Hall eventually grew into an 18-room home, practically a mansion by frontier standards. Shandy Hall was named by Robert Harper&#39;s daughter, Ann, after her favorite book, Tristram Shandy. Her copy of the book remains at the museum to this day. Shandy Hall, together with many of its original antique furnishings, was donated to the Western Reserve Historical Society in the 1930s. Although a museum, the property does not have regular hours for public visits; tours are by appointment only. The majority of the pieces on display are original to the home.</p><br>
<p>The Lorado Taft Midway Studios are a historic artist studio complex at South Ingleside Avenue and East 60th Street, on the campus of the University of Chicago on the South Side of Chicago. The architecturally haphazard structure, originating as two converted barns and a Victorian house, was used from 1906 to 1929 as the studio of Lorado Taft , one of the most influential sculptors of the period. A National Historic Landmark, it now houses the university&#39;s visual arts department.</p><br>
<h2>Description and history</h2><br>
<p>The Lorado Taft Midway Studio is a conglomeration of structures standing on the south side of the University of Chicago campus, on the west side of South Ingleside Avenue at East 60th Street. The northern end of the structure is a two-story Victorian house, from which a series of single-story sections extend southward, joining the house to adjacent two-story barn structures, one with a gabled roof and the other with a hip roof. Historically, these elements framed a courtyard that was open to the west, except for a fringing hedge and fence; this has since been filled by additional studio space. The interior is as rambling as the exterior, much of it composed of a warren of smaller studio spaces.</p><br>
<p>Lorado Taft was educated at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, receiving both a bachelors (1879) and masters degree (1880) in art. In the 1880s he continued his studies in Paris, and returned to Chicago in 1885, joining the faculty of the Chicago Art Institute in 1886. In 1906, Taft moved his main studio from the Chicago Loop to a brick barn near the Midway Plaisance. Later, he connected a pair of frame barns to the main building to serve as male and female dormitories. The structure was redesigned by the architectural firm of Pond and Pond to contain 13 studios for Taft and affiliated sculptors.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 21, 1965, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966. It is one of the four Chicago Registered Historic Places from the original October 15, 1966 National Register of Historic Places list (along with Chicago Pile-1, Hull House, and Robie House). On December 1, 1993, it was named a Chicago Landmark.</p><br>
<p>Today, the building is home to the university&#39;s Department of Visual Arts and Creative Writing program, and has been renovated to be classrooms, offices, and studios for students and faculty.</p><br>
<p>Sauer Castle is an Italianate architecture home at 935 Shawnee Road in Kansas City, Kansas, built from 1871 to 1873. It was designed by famed architect Asa Beebe Cross as the residence of German immigrant and local business owner Anton Sauer. He had married Francesca in Vienna, Austria at age 18. There, they had their five children: Gustave O.L., Anthony Philip Jr., Julius J., Emil, and Johanna.</p><br>
<p>The house is on the National Register of Historic Places. A Kansas City, Kansas Public Library historian called it, "Without a doubt, the most famous residence in Kansas City, Kansas".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Anton Sauer was born in Germany in 1823, and moved to New York City in 1858 to join his mother and sisters. However, due to his worsening tuberculosis and the death of his wife, Francesca, in 1868, he moved his family to Kansas City.</p><br>
<p>After Anton&#39;s business became successful, he began courting a young 28-year-old widow, Mary (Maria) Einhellig Messerschmidt, who had two daughters of her own: Anna and Maria. After marrying in 1869 they had five daughters (four survived to maturity): Eva Marie, Antoinette, Josephine (sometimes listed as Fosefa), and Clara. Daughter Helen (sometimes listed as Frances) died in infancy age 14 months.</p><br>
<p>By 1872, the mansion was finally fully furnished, sitting on the Shawnee trail that led to the historical Santa Fe Trail.</p><br>
<p>On August 16, 1879, Anton died in the second floor master bedroom. Mary and the children remained in the house. She died on November 29, 1919, of a heart attack, and the children remained.</p><br>
<p>Daughter Eve Maria Sauer married William C. Van Fossen in the house, having one child named Helen before the marriage failed 18 months into it. She then married a widower with six children of his own, local Wyandotte County businessman and landowner, Mr. John S. Perkins. Together they had three children and stayed married until he committed suicide with a handgun at age 73, due to his declining health. Eve and John S. Perkins&#39;s son John Harrison Perkins had an infant daughter drown in the swimming pool on the west side of the house. Eve continued to live in the family home with her son and two daughters, Eva Marie Perkins, and Marguerite A. Perkins, until her death in 1955.</p><br>
<p>Five generations of the Sauer family continued living in the mansion until the owner of a home heating oil company, Paul Berry, bought the house after Eve&#39;s death. He lived in the mansion until his own death in December 1986. Because of ghost stories originating in 1930, the house was constantly trespassed and vandalized, which Barry and his dog fought off.</p><br>
<p>In January 1987, Bud Wyman, his son and daughter in law, Cliff and Cindy Jones, bought the home hoping to turn it into a bed and breakfast. At this time, no one lived in the house. In 1988, Carl Lopp, the great, great grandson of Anthony Sauer, bought the house with the intention of fixing it up and residing there to keep it in the family. However, this difficult task has only yielded minor improvements such as fixing balconies and putting a large fence around the property.</p><br>
<p>Lopp&#39;s hired caretaker of the house was charged with felony theft on August 15, 1996, for stealing $30,000 worth of artifacts from the house, including a garden tractor, antique dress, chandelier, copper from the furnace, and wall sconces.</p><br>
<p>In January 2022, Lopp listed the property for $10 million, considered far above its true market value.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration</h3><br>
<p>The site was purchased in 2023 by an enthusiast who hired teams of comprehensive historical restoration specialists. Their goals were structural stability and restoration of original architectural features, using modern techniques such as foundation stabilization and roof repair. They used period-appropriate materials and methods where possible, especially on stonework.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Asa Beebe Cross was one of the most prominent Kansas City architects, and designed Sauer Castle in the Italianate Villa architecture style. This typically focuses on classical proportions, decorative brackets, and tall, narrow windows. The house&#39;s reportedly most distinctive feature is its four-story tower, providing panoramic views.</p><br>
<p>It was placed in the Register of Historic Kansas Places on July 1, 1977. It was placed in the National Register of Historic Places on August 2, 1977. It was placed in the Kansas City, Kansas Historic Landmarks on January 29, 1987.</p><br>
